Nuclear Energy Eighth Edition Nuclear Energy An Introduction to the Concepts, Systems, and Applications of Nuclear Processes Eighth Edition Raymond L. Murray Keith E. Holbert Butterworth-HeinemannisanimprintofElsevier TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OxfordOX51GB,UnitedKingdom 50HampshireStreet,5thFloor,Cambridge,MA02139,UnitedStates #2020ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved. Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicor mechanical,includingphotocopying,recording,oranyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,without permissioninwritingfromthepublisher.Detailsonhowtoseekpermission,furtherinformationaboutthe Publisher’spermissionspoliciesandourarrangementswithorganizationssuchastheCopyrightClearanceCenter andtheCopyrightLicensingAgency,canbefoundatourwebsite:www.elsevier.com/permissions. ThisbookandtheindividualcontributionscontainedinitareprotectedundercopyrightbythePublisher (otherthanasmaybenotedherein). Notices Knowledgeandbestpracticeinthisfieldareconstantlychanging.Asnewresearchandexperiencebroaden ourunderstanding,changesinresearchmethods,professionalpractices,ormedicaltreatmentmaybecome necessary. Practitionersandresearchersmustalwaysrelyontheirownexperienceandknowledgeinevaluatingandusing anyinformation,methods,compounds,orexperimentsdescribedherein.Inusingsuchinformationormethods theyshouldbemindfuloftheirownsafetyandthesafetyofothers,includingpartiesforwhomtheyhavea professionalresponsibility. Tothefullestextentofthelaw,neitherthePublishernortheauthors,contributors,oreditors,assumeanyliability foranyinjuryand/ordamagetopersonsorpropertyasamatterofproductsliability,negligenceorotherwise, orfromanyuseoroperationofanymethods,products,instructions,orideascontainedinthematerialherein. LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData AcatalogrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-PublicationData AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary ISBN:978-0-12-812881-7 ForinformationonallButterworth-Heinemannpublications visitourwebsiteathttps://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals Publisher:KateyBirtcher Sr.AcquisitionsEditor:SteveMerken Sr.ContentDevelopmentSpecialist:NateMcFadden ProductionProjectManager:PunithavathyGovindaradjane CoverDesigner:MarkRogers TypesetbySPiGlobal,India About the Authors RaymondL.Murray(Ph.D.,UniversityofTennessee,1950)was along-timefacultymemberintheDepartmentofNuclearEngineer- ing of North Carolina State University. Professor Murray studied under J. Robert Oppenheimer at the University of California at Berkeley.IntheManhattanProjectofWorldWarII,hecontributed to the uranium isotope separation process at Berkeley and Oak Ridge. In the early 1950s, he helped found the first university nu- clear engineering program and the first university nuclear reactor. During his 30 years of teaching and research in reactor analysis at NorthCarolinaState,hetaughtmanyofourleadersinuniversities andindustriesthroughouttheworld.Hewastheauthoroftextbooks inphysicsandnucleartechnologyandtherecipientofanumberof awards,includingtheEugeneP.WignerReactorPhysicistAwardof the American Nuclear Society in 1994. He was a Fellow of the American Physical Society, a Fellow of the American Nuclear Society,andamemberofseveralhonorary,scientific,andenginee- ringsocieties.Afterretirementfromtheuniversity,Dr.Murraywas a consultant on criticality for the Three Mile Island Recovery Program,servedaschairperson of the North Carolina Radiation Protection Commission, and served as chairperson of the North Carolina Low-Level Radioactive Waste Management Authority. He provided an annual lecture at MIT for the Institute ofNuclear PowerOperations. Keith E. Holbert (Ph.D., University of Tennessee, 1989) is pres- entlyanAssociateProfessorintheSchoolofElectrical,Computer, and Energy Engineering at Arizona State University. His research expertise is in the area of instrumentation and system diagnostics, including radiation effects on sensors. Dr. Holbert has performed testsonsafety-relatedsystemsinmorethanadozennuclearpower plantsintheUnitedStates.Hehaspublishedmorethan200journal and conference papers and two textbooks, and holds two patents. Dr. Holbert is a registered professional (nuclear) engineer. He is a member of the American Nuclear Society and a Senior Member oftheIEEE.AsthefoundingDirectoroftheNuclearPowerGener- ationProgramatASU,ProfessorHolbertteachesundergraduateand graduateengineeringcoursesonelectricpowergeneration(fromall formsofenergy),nuclearreactortheoryanddesign,nuclearpower plant controls and diagnostics, reactor safety analysis, and health physicsandradiationmeasurements.Dr.Holberthasbeentherecip- ientofmultipleteachingawards.KeithisaChristian,whoascribes to the doctrine that God has entrusted humanity with good stewardship ofHis creation. xv Preface Professor Raymond L. Murray (1920–2011) authored six editions of this textbook until his death. Standing on the shoulders of his work, I have humbly attempted to expand the coverage and depth of the material while keeping with its original intent. As stated in the preface to the first edition (1975),thisbook“isdesignedforusebyanyonewhowishestoknowabouttheroleofnuclearenergy inoursocietyortolearnnuclearconceptsforuseinprofessionalwork.”Thecontinuedhopeisthatthis book will benefit both (future) nuclear professionals andinterested membersofthe public. Bymanyaccounts,humanitystandsatacrossroads,withself-inflictedstressesduetopopulation growthandanthropogenicclimatechange.Simultaneously,thequalityoflifeisenhancedthroughthe availability of affordable energy sources. Trends show electricity being increasingly tapped as the end-use energy form. Concomitantly, Internet-connected devices are consuming larger amounts of power while on standby. Another challenge is the competitive collaboration between two critical resources—theenergy-water nexus. IntheUnitedStates,naturalgashasbecomethefavoredchoicefornewelectricgeneratingstations due to its lower costs. However, external costs due to climate change are unaccounted for in a con- sumer’selectricutilitybills.DatainChapter24revealthatthelifecyclegreenhousegasemissionsfrom nuclear power plants are as small as those from renewable energy power facilities. Nuclear reactors havethepotentialtocombatclimatechange.Futuregenerationsmayjustifiablycriticizepresentgen- erationsfor notbeing willingto paythe fullprice for energy utilization. Besides nuclearpowergeneration, associatedtechnologiesare utilizedina variety ofapplications, includingnuclearmedicineandsmokedetectors.Furthermore,sincetheterroristattacksof2001,radiation detectorshavebeeninstalledatportsofentryworldwidetointerceptillicitshipmentsofnuclearmaterials. Like politics and religion, the subject of nuclear energy can generate heated debate. Hence, one purposeofthisbookmustbetobringfactualinformationtothediscussion.Topicsthatseemtogenerate the most concern inevitably include the persistent nuclear waste issue, nuclear power plant safety, radiation, and atomic weapons. Therefore, the authors are compelled to devote coverage to these (sometimes controversial)areas. Whiletheoverallorganizationoftheeightheditionhasnotchanged,thematerialcoverageandnuclear datahavebeenupdatedandexpanded.Inaddition,thereisasignificantincreaseinthenumberofexamples andexercisesbecausestudentlearningisenhancedbyperformingcalculationsandanalysesonnuclearquan- tities.Theexercisesaresolvablebyahandheldcalculatororspreadsheetsoftware,withmanyanswersgiven inAppendixB.Inaddition,MATLABprogramsandExcelworkbooksforthesolutionofcomputerexercises in the text can be downloaded from https://www.elsevier.com/books/nuclear-energy/murray/978-0-12- 812881-7.SincerethanksareextendedtoCliffGoldforcreatingmostoftheExcelversionsoftheprograms. This eighth edition of the textbook benefitted significantly from the meticulous reading of the seventh edition by Professors Toyohiko Yano, Hiroshi Sekimoto, and Hitoshi Kato, who translated the text into Japanese. My wife, Cecilia, must also be acknowledged for her rendering of many of thediagramsaswellasherthoroughproofreadingofthetext.Theauthorwelcomesanyconstructive comments and corrections tothe text ([email protected]). Keith E. Holbert Tempe, Arizona, 2018 xvii PART I BASIC CONCEPTS In the study of the practical applications of nuclear energy, we must consider the properties of indi- vidualparticlesofmatter—their“microscopic”features—aswellasthecharacterofmatterinitsor- dinaryform,a“macroscopic”(large-scale)view.Examplesofthesmall-scalepropertiesaremassesof atoms and nuclear particles, their effective sizes for interaction with each other, and the number of particles in a certain volume. The combined behavior of large numbers of individual particles is expressedintermsofpropertiessuchasmassdensity,chargedensity,electricalconductivity,thermal conductivity, and elastic constants. We continually seek consistency between the microscopic and macroscopic views. Becauseallprocessesinvolvetheinteractionsofparticles,itisnecessarytodevelopabackground understandingofthebasicphysicalfactsandprinciplesthatgovernsuchinteractions.InPartI,weshall examinetheconceptofenergy,describethemodelsofatomicandnuclearstructure,discussradioac- tivityandnuclearreactionsingeneral,reviewthewaysradiationinteractswithmatter,andconcentrate on two important nuclear processes: fissionand fusion. CHAPTER 1 ENERGY CHAPTER OUTLINE 1.1 ForcesandEnergy ............................................................................................................................3 1.2 UnitsofMeasure..............................................................................................................................5 1.3 ThermalEnergy ................................................................................................................................6 1.4 RadiantEnergy .................................................................................................................................8 1.5 TheEquivalenceofMatterandEnergy ............................................................................................10 1.6 EnergyandtheWorld ....................................................................................................................11 1.7 Summary ......................................................................................................................................11 1.8 Exercises ......................................................................................................................................11 1.9 ComputerExercise ........................................................................................................................13 References ..........................................................................................................................................13 Ourmaterialworldiscomposedofmanysubstancesdistinguishedbytheirchemical,mechanical,and electricalproperties.Theyarefoundinnatureinvariousphysicalstates:thefamiliarsolid,liquid,and gasalongwithionicplasma.However,theapparentdiversityofkindsandformsofmaterialisreduced bytheknowledgethatthereareonlyabout90naturallyoccurringchemicalelementsandthatthechem- icalandphysicalfeaturesofsubstancesdependmerelyonthestrengthofforcebondsbetweenatoms. Inturn,thedistinctionsbetweentheelementsofnaturearisefromthenumberandarrangementof basicparticles:electrons,protons,andneutrons.Atboththeatomicandnuclearlevels,internalforces and energy determine the structure ofelements. 1.1 FORCES AND ENERGY Alimitednumberofbasic forces exist:gravitational,electromagnetic,andstrongandweaknuclear. Associated with each of these is the ability to do work. Thus, energy in different forms may be stored, released, transformed, transferred, and “used” in both natural processes and man-made devices.Itisoftenconvenienttoviewnatureintermsofonlytwobasicentities:particlesandenergy. Eventhisdistinctioncanberemovedbecauseweknowthatmattercanbeconvertedintoenergyand vice versa. Letusreviewsomeprinciplesofphysicsneededforthestudyofthereleaseofnuclearenergyandits conversionintothermalandelectricalforms.WerecallthatifaconstantforceFisappliedtoanobject tomoveitadistances,theamountofworkWdoneistheproductW¼Fs.Asasimpleexample,wepick 3 NuclearEnergy.https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-812881-7.00001-0 #2020ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved. 4 CHAPTER 1 ENERGY upabookfromthefloorandplaceitonatable.Ourmusclesprovidethemeanstoliftagainsttheforce ofgravityonthebook.Wehavedoneworkontheobject,whichnowpossessesstoredenergy(potential energy)becauseitcoulddoworkifallowedtofallbacktotheoriginallevel.Now,aforceFactingona massmprovidesanaccelerationa,givenbyNewton’slawF¼ma.Startingfromrest,theobjectgainsa speed v, and at anyinstant has energy of motion (kinetic energy) inthe amount 1 E ¼ mv2 (1.1) K 2 Forobjectsfallingundertheforceofgravity,wefindthatthepotentialenergydiminishesasthekinetic energyincreases,butthesumofthetwoenergytypesremainsconstant.Thisisanexampleoftheprin- cipleofconservationofenergy.Letusapplythisprincipletoapracticalsituationandperformsome illustrative calculations. Asweknow,fallingwaterprovidesoneprimarysourceforgeneratingelectricalenergy.Inahy- droelectricplant,riverwateriscollectedbyadamandallowedtofallthroughaconsiderableheighth, knownasthehead.Thepotentialenergyofwateristhusconvertedintokineticenergy.Thewateris directed tostrike the blades ofa hydraulic turbine,which turns an electric generator. ThepotentialenergyofamassmlocatedatthetopofadamisE ¼Fh,beingtheworkdonetoplace P it there. The force is the weight F¼mg, where g is the acceleration of gravity. Thus, the potential energy is E ¼mgh (1.2) P EXAMPLE 1.1 Findthevelocityofwaterdescendingthroughadamwitha50mhead.Ignoringfriction,theinitialpotentialenergywould appearatthebottominkineticform,thatis,E ¼E .UsinggravitationalaccelerationattheEarth’ssurfaceg ¼9.81m/s2, K P 0 thewaterspeedattheturbineinletwouldbe rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 2E 2E 2mg h v¼ K¼ P¼ 0 ¼ 2ð9:81m=s2Þð50mÞ¼31:3m=s m m m Energytakesonvariousforms,classifiedaccordingtothetypeofforcethatisacting.Thewaterin thehydroelectricplantexperiencestheforceofgravity,andthusgravitationalenergyisinvolved.Itis transformed into mechanical energy of rotation in the turbine, which is then converted to electrical energy by the generator.At the terminals ofthe generator,there is anelectrical potential difference, which provides the force to move charged particles (electrons) through the network of the electrical supplysystem.Theelectricalenergymaythenbeconvertedintomechanicalenergyasinmotors,into light energy as in light bulbs, into thermal energy as in electrically heated homes, or into chemical energy as ina storage battery. Theautomobilealsoprovidesfamiliarexamplesofenergytransformations.Theburningofgasoline releases the chemical energy of the fuel in the form of heat, part of which is converted to energy of motionofmechanicalpartswhiletherestistransferredtotheatmosphereandhighway.Thevehicle’s alternatorprovides electricity for control andlighting.In each ofthese examples,energy is changed fromoneformtoanotherbutisnotdestroyed.Twolaws,thefirstandsecondlawsofthermodynamics, 1.2 UNITS OF MEASURE 5 governtheconversionofheattootherformsofenergy.Thefirstlawstatesthatenergyisconserved;the second specifies inherent limits on the efficiency ofthe energyconversion. Energy can beclassifiedaccording tothe primary source.We have already notedtwo sources of energy:fallingwaterandtheburningofthechemicalfuelgasoline,whichisderivedfrompetroleum, one of the main fossil fuels. To these we can add solar energy; the energy from winds, tides, or sea motion;andheatfromwithintheEarth.Finally,wehaveenergyfromnuclearreactions(i.e.,the“burn- ing” of nuclear fuel). 1.2 UNITS OF MEASURE For many purposes, we use the metric system of units, more precisely designated as SI or Syste`me Internationale. In this system (Taylor and Thompson, 2008), the base units are the kilogram (kg) for mass, the meter (m) for length, the second (s) for time, the mole (mol) for amount of substance, the ampere (A) for electric current, the kelvin (K) for thermodynamic temperature, and the candela (cd)forluminousintensity.Table1.1summarizestheseSIbaseunitsandimportantderivedquantities. Inaddition,theliter(L)andmetricton(tonne)areincommonuse(1L¼10(cid:2)3m3;1tonne¼1000kg). However,forunderstandingearlierliterature,onerequiresknowledgeofothersystems.Thetransition Table1.1 SIBaseandDerivedQuantitiesandUnits Quantity Unit UnitSymbol UnitDimension(s) Length meter m Mass kilogram kg Time second s Electriccurrent ampere A Thermodynamictemperature kelvin K Amountofsubstance mole mol Luminousintensity candela cd Frequency hertz Hz 1/s Force newton N kgm/s2¼J/m Pressure pascal Pa N/m2¼kg/(ms2) Energy,work,heat joule J Nm¼kgm2/s2 Power watt W J/s¼kgm2/s3 Electriccharge coulomb C As Electricpotential volt V J/C¼W/A¼kgm2/(s3A) Electriccapacitance farad F C/V¼C2/J Magneticflux weber Wb Vs Magneticfluxdensity tesla T Wb/m2 Absorbeddose gray Gy J/kg Doseequivalent sievert Sv J/kg Activity becquerel Bq 1/s 6 CHAPTER 1 ENERGY in the United States from British units to SI units has been much slower than expected. To ease un- derstandingbythetypicalreader,adualdisplayofnumbersandtheirunitsisfrequentlygiveninthis book. Familiar and widely used units such as the centimeter, the barn, the curie, and the rem are retained. Table A.3 inAppendix Alists usefulconversionsfrom British units toSI units. Indealingwithforcesandenergyatthelevelofmolecules,atoms,andnuclei,itisconventionalto useanotherenergyunit,theelectronvolt(eV).Itsoriginiselectricalincharacter,beingtheamountof kinetic energy that would be imparted to an electron (charge 1.602(cid:3)10(cid:2)19C) if it were accelerated through a potential difference of 1V. Because the work done on 1C would be 1J, we see that 1eV¼1.602(cid:3)10(cid:2)19J. The unit is of convenient size for describing atomic reactions. For instance, toremovetheoneelectronfromthehydrogenatomrequires13.6eVofenergy.However,whendealing withnuclearforces,whichareverymuchlargerthanatomicforces,itispreferable tousethemega- electronvoltunit(MeV).Toseparatetheneutronfromtheprotoninthenucleusofheavyhydrogen,for example,requires anenergy ofabout 2.2MeV (i.e.,2.2(cid:3)106eV). 1.3 THERMAL ENERGY Of special importanceto usis thermal energy asthe formmostreadilyavailable fromthe sun, from burningofordinaryfuels,andfromthenuclearfissionprocess.First,werecallthatasimpledefinition ofthetemperatureofasubstanceisthenumberreadfromameasuringdevicesuchasathermometerin intimatecontactwiththematerial.Ifenergyissupplied,thetemperaturerises(e.g.,energyfromthesun warmstheairduringtheday).Eachmaterialrespondstothesupplyofenergyaccordingtoitsinternal molecular or atomic structure, characterized on a macroscopic scale by the specific heat c . If an p amount of thermal energy Q is added to the material mass without a change of state, a temperature rise, ΔT, is inducedin accordancewith Q¼mc ΔT (1.3) p EXAMPLE 1.2 Atconstantpressure,thespecificheatforwaterat15°Cand1atmisc ¼4.186J/(g°C).Thus,itrequires4.186joules(J)of p energytoraisethetemperatureof1gofwaterby1degreeCelsius(1°C). From our modern knowledge of the atomic nature of matter, we readily appreciate the idea that energysuppliedtoamaterialincreases themotionoftheindividualparticles ofthesubstance.Tem- peraturecanthusberelatedtotheaveragekineticenergyoftheatoms.Forexample,inagassuchasair, theaverageenergyoftranslationalmotionofthemoleculesEisdirectlyproportionaltotheabsolute temperature T, throughthe relation 3 E¼ kT (1.4) 2 wherekisBoltzmann’sconstant,1.38(cid:3)10(cid:2)23J/K(RecallthattheKelvinscalehasthesamespacingof degrees asdoes the Celsius scale, butitszero is at (cid:2)273.15°C.)