Research Reports Notes on the natural history ofthe Tussock Skink Pseudemoiapagenstecheri from basalt plains grasslands near Melbourne Grant S Turner 103SettlementRoad,Bundoora,Victoria3083. Abstract Fielddataandobservationsonthe naturalhistoryoftheTussockSkinkPseudemoiapagenstecheri inhabiting the basalt plains grasslands near Melbourne are described based on the capture of141 ofthese lizards and approximately 70 sightings. Mature females were larger and heavier than males and the adult sex ratio was 1:1. Therewasastronglinearcorrelationbetween snout-to-vent length (SVL) andboth tail length andhead length; the natural logarithm ofboth SVL and masswere also strongly correlated. Skinks were active in all monthsoftheyearwhenconditionswerefavourableandtheyusedprimarilystonesandgrasstussocksasboth refugia andbaskingsites.Theytendedtooccursingly,bothwhen activeandsheltering. Parturitionoccurred inDecemberandJanuary.SmallelapidsnakeswerefoundtopreyonP.pagenstecheriofallsizes. (TheVictorian Naturalist129(2),2012,46-53) Keywords: TussockSkink,basaltplains, size, activity,behaviour Introduction The Tussock Skink Pseudemoia pagenstecheri and by searching beneath ground cover (grass is asmall, terrestrial, diurnallizardconfined to tussocks and surface stones) during daylight the southeastern corner ofmainland Australia hours;capturewasbyhand. Capturerateswere and Tasmania (Hutchinson and Donnellan notequalthroughouttheyear:theyweregreat- 1992; Bennett 1997; Hutchinson et al. 2001). est when lizards were inactive, and variable in Pseudemoia pagenstecheri is a very common othermonths.Sizevariablesrecordedfromcap- inhabitant of the basalt plains grasslands to tured lizards were: snout-to-vent length (SVL, the north andwest ofMelbourne and this area ± 1 mm),taillength (TL,± 1 mm)andtailcon- forms one of five disjunct regions comprising dition (original/incomplete/regenerated), mass thespecies’distribution (Hutchinsonand Don- (M,±0.01 g)and(inabout30%oflizards)head nellan 1992; Larwill 1995). The life history of length(HL,±0.1 mm;asmeasuredfromthetip P.pagenstecheri has been the subject ofseveral ofthe snout to the distal point ofthe parietal studies (Ward 1978; Hudson 1988, 1997) and scale along the midline). Other data recorded the species reproductive mode has also been included reproductive status (i.e., gravid/not examined (Thompson and Stewart 1994). In gravid, post-parturient; see below), activity thecourseofdoingreptilesurveysofWerribee- (i.e., basking, active or secluded) and general Keilor grassland plains near Melbourne, data condition of skinks. The sex of adult lizards and observations were collected on the size, was inferred from existing secondary sexual appearance, habitat use and behavior ofP pa- characters, notably the presence/absence ofan genstecheri and this, along with captive obser- orange-red mid-lateral stripe in mature male vationsofthespecies, aredetailedbelow. skinks. In populations west ofMelbourne the Methods stripe is present throughout the year, although Fourremnantbasaltplainsgrasslandswithin25 itismorevividduringlatesummertoearlywin- km ofthe Melbourne CBD were regularlyvis- ter(HutchinsonandDonnellan 1992).Swelling ofthe tail base (indicative ofswollen hemipe- ited between 1991 and 1994. Grasslands were — nes pairedcopulatoryorgans) was also used located at Craigieburn, Deer Park, Bundoora to confirm the sex ofadult males as was ever- and Altona; only fragments ofthe latter three sion ofthe hemipenes in some instances. The nowexist due to the expansion ofhousing and abdominal region of females was palpated to industrial developments. Lizards were located establishiftheyweregravidorpost-parturient; by visual inspection ofpotential basking sites 46 TheVictorianNaturalist Research Reports — heavilygravid femaleswere easilyidentifiedby her mass after birth: and RCM2 the total their general ‘bloated’ appearance. Males were mass ofneonates divided by the female’s mass deemed sexually mature (i.e., adult) if SVL immediatelyafterbirth. > 39 mm and females ifSVL > 40 mm, based Results oFanecdaaltasaimnpHluetscfhrionmsosnoamnedpDootennnteilallapnre(d1a9t9o2r).s A total of 141 Tussock Skinks were captured. Approximately 70 more eluded capture but were collected and examined for the presence wereobservedfromadistance. ofskinkscales. EightP.pagenstecheri(comprisingfour males Size,growthandappearance and four females) were kept in captivitywhere Mature females were significantly larger than mm theywerehoused together in aglass aquarium mature males: mean female SVL was 57.4 mm on a gravel substrate with dry grass tussocks, (n = 53) and mean male SVLwas 52.9 (n several stones for refugia and a small water = 54; t = 3.760, 98 df, P = 0.0003). The mean bowl.Theywerefedonadietoflivefood,main- adultfemaleandmale masswas2.48g(n= 19) lychoppedearthworms, mealworms and small and 2.41 g (n = 30) respectively. These were crickets when available. The females each pro- not significantly different (f= 0.259, 30 df, P = ducedyoung and werehoused separatelyfrom 0.798, but see below). The largest female SVL mm the males until parturition in order to gather was 69 and the heaviest non-gravid fe- data on relative clutch mass, neonate size and male weighed 4.06 g (with an incomplete tail) appearance. The enclosures received sunlight and was located in mid-winter. The heaviest fromanorth-facingwindow. individual was a gravid female weighing 5.78 Dataanalysis g. Tmhemlargest and heaviest male had a SVL of Statisticalanalysisofdatawasperformedusing 62 and weighed 3.43 g and was located in SriPcSvSar(iV.albl1e)sanwderMeSeiEtxhceerln(o2r00m7a)l.lyModripsthroimbuette-d wmesietdr-eswki0in.nt8ke2r(g.aanTenhodena0lt.ieg7h)0tegwsatrseasdlpuoelccttaitfveeedlmyai.lneTDhaeencdesmmmabalellre- or natural-log transformed in order to satisfy and had a SVL of 22 mm. The mean dimen- the assumptions of the parametric statistical tests employed (Student t-test, ANCOVA, or- wseiornes:oSfVnLeo2n2a.t8esmfmr,omTfLou2r9.c3apmtimve-abnodrnwleiitgtehrts dinary least squares regression and correla- tion). Coefficients in regression equations are 0.M1a9sgs(aTanbdleSV1)L. were highly correlated within cquoomtpeadrewditbhysmteanadnasrdoferornoersa.nFdretqwuoe-nwcaieystawbelrees eIancShVLse-x((9F.i8g.9 ±1;0m.a5l9e3s):, rI2n=M0.=91(52,.7P3<±00..0105011), using the x2 statistic with Yates correction for n = 31; females: InM = (2.65 ± 0.146) InSVL - continuity applied (Sokal and Rohlf 1995). (9.67 ± 0.578), 0.952, P < 0.0001, n = 19). Gravid and post-parturient females and in- Malesandfemalesdifferedsignificantlyinmass dfo—ifrvorimtedlhuaeaatlnisdaveilwfycfisleeturshtecniihcnnevcmooablmsevpstilnwewgeteeemrnaetsatscihla.selcTwufewlearmoteaeldmee:’exsacRslCmuuarMdsee1sds w=45h1ed5fn.,50SP5V,=LP0w.=a70s03;.c0oi0nn0tt2re;orlcFleiepgdtusrfeotr=1(2sA.l8oN1pC,eOs4V6tA=d:f,0.P387=,5 0.0073). Theslopeoftheregressionline immediately before and after birth, divided by Table1.DatafromfourlittersofTussockSkinksPseudemoiapagenstecheri.Thetwomeasuresofrelative clutchmassRCM1/2,themeansnout-to-ventlengthSVL,taillengthTLandmassaregivenforeachlitter. FemaleSVL Dateof LitterSize RCM1/2 SVL TL Mass (mm) Birth (mm) (mm) (g) 57 25Jan. 5 _ 23.0 25.8 0.18 57 23Dec. 6 1.28/0.62 22.2 30.8 0.16 55 30Dec. 4 0.89/0.44 23.9 31.3 0.20 65 31 Dec. 6 0.65/0.40 22.2 29.5 0.21 Vol 129 (2) 2012 47 Research Reports 70- 05“ 60- 55- £ E _>i o G 20“ 1 Fig. 1.ThenaturallogarithmofSVLversusthenatu- ian *"et) Mar Apr May Jun Ju! Sep Oct Nov Dec rallogarithm ofmassin TussockSkinksPseudemoia Month pagenstecheri. Regression lines are given for males (solid circles, solid line) and females (open circles, brokenline). Fig. 2. Monthlydistribution ofSVLs (in mm) in the Tussock Skink Pseudemoiapagenstecheri (n = 111). differedmarginallyfrom theexpectedvalue(3) Notethatidenticaldatapointsarenotdistinguishable in females (t=2.43, 19df,P=0.026) butnotin intheplot. males (t= 1.78,31 df,P= 0.085). that maturity, in some individuals, is attained In all individuals with original tails, TL ex- by about 12 months ofage since the smallest ceeded SVL and there was a strong linear rela- skinks recorded inJanuaryand Decemberhad tionship between these two variables described SVLs > 40 mm. The sexratio ofthe adultswas bytheregressionequation:TL= (1.411 ±0.151) 1: 1 (55malesand55 females). SVL+ (2.804±0.593) (r2=0.755, P< 0.0001,n The frequencyofsloughing (shedding ofold =53).ThenumberofTussockSkinkswithorigi- deadskin) in adultscouldnotbereliablydeter- nal tails did not differ between the sexes (34% mined due to the small sample size. No skinks females, 42% males; x2= 0.38, 1 df, P= 0.537). (adult or juvenile) were observed sloughing mm The longest (original) TL was 95 from a in winter; two adults were sloughing in April malewithaSVLof57mm.Injuvenilesandsub- (while in another adult sloughing was immi- adults the proportion ofindividuals with origi- nent at this time) and one adult in early May. nal tails was significantly higher than in adults Twojuvenileswere sloughingin February. (80%juveniles, 38% adults x2= 19.47, 1 df, P < The presence of black patches on the rear 0.0001). There was also astronglinearrelation- limbs was noted in adult males and has not ship between SVL and HL described bythe re- been mentioned previously in general descrip- gression equation: HL = (0.084 ± 0.005) SVL + tions ofthe species. Black patches occurred on (3.177±0.275) (r2=0.822,P< 0.0001,n=36). the posterior surface ofthe femoral and tibial Adult P. pagenstecheri comprised 74% of all regions ofthe rearlimbs (Fig. 3). Patches typi- skinks caught and 61% of all those observed. cally extended unbroken from the rear limb- The monthlydistributionofSVLs (Fig. 2) indi- body junction down to the base of the foot. cated apparentvariationinthe sizestructureof Patches were sharply demarcated from the populations (oratleastthesample) throughout dorsal ground colour. Most males (83%; 45 of theyear. In Decemberand Januarythe greatest 54)capturedduringtheperiodApriltoSeptem- rangeinSVL (approx. 40mm) occurreddueto ber(inclusive)haddistinctblackpatchesonthe thepresenceoftheneonatecohort,whileinthe rear limbs,and approximatelyhalfhad swollen wintermonths the detected SVLrangewas less hemipenes (n = 23); ofnine males captured in (approx.30mm),presumablyduetothegrowth Februarytwo had distinct blackpatches but in of this cohort. The distribution also suggests the remainder black patches were present but 48 TheVictorianNaturalist Research Reports Fig. 3. Black patches (indicated by arrows) on the rear limbs ofan adult male Tussock Skink Pseudemoiapagenstecheri. faint. This may indicate seasonal variability in wasnotwitnessedin captive skinksbutdid oc- the intensity of the black patches, and is sup- cur during daylight hours (see also Hudson ported bythe apparent fadingofblackpatches 1999). Litter size in four females ranged from in three adult captive males. Only one female fourto six (Table 1). (2%; 1 of 53) had faint black patches. Black A two-fold difference in each measure of patches were not observed in anyjuveniles. In RCM (relative clutch mass) was found (cf. Fe- six small males (SVL 35 - 40 mm), three had male 2 and 4, Table 1). A comparison of the developedblackpatchesandhadswollenhemi- tworelativeclutch massmeasuresalsoexhibita peneswhiletheremainderexhibitedneitherat- two-folddifference,indicatingthatasignificant tribute. The smallest male with black patches loss offluids and fetal material occurs at birth, had a SVL of37 mm. Given the occurrence of andisvirtuallythesameasthecombinedmass black patches predominantly (or perhaps ex- oftheneonatesinthelitter (see Hudson 1999). clusively) in males they mayrepresent another In six females, pitting and minor scale dam- formofsexualdichromatism. age on the upper flank (shoulder region) was evident and two females located in May had Reproduction fresh abrasions around the neck and upper Heavily gravid females were recorded in No- vember (n = 6) and December (n = 5). In ad- filnajnukrsi;esthaeretciomnisnigstaenndtowcictuhrrgerinpcebiotfetshaepspelmiiednobry dition, a female accidentally killed on the 21st male skinks when attempting to mate (Hutch- November was found to be gravid with eight inson and Donnellan 1992). Neither courtship mid-term embryos (see below). Post-partu- normatingwasobserved. rient females were recorded in late December through to late January (n = 6). Neonateswere Dietandpredators observed in the field during late December (n Four field observations were noted of skinks = 9) andthroughout January(n = 6). This was attempting to feed on dipterans (flies) (n = 2), consistentwiththetimingofparturitionincap- a small Black Field Cricket Teleogryllus com- tivefemales(Table 1). Parturition(givingbirth) modus (n = 1) and a small caterpillar (n = 1). Vol 129 (2) 2012 49 Research Reports The remainder ofdata on the diet ofP.pagen- quite rapid movementwhen disturbed. In cool stecheriwasobtainedfromfaecalpelletscollect- weather during summer months, lizards shel- ed from 14 adults. Thesecontained avarietyof tered beneath stones and amongst grass tus- insect fragments, including small unidentified socks byday. On being disturbed when active, coleopterans (beetles)and dipterans (flies). skinks would typically retreat into the grassy Faecal samples and regurgitated food items ground layer orbeneath stones; on several oc- frombothadultandjuvenileLittleWhipSnakes casions skinks sought refuge down cracks in Parasutaflagellum (n = 32), juvenile Eastern claysoil. Brown Snakes Pseudonaja textilis (n = 15) and Onlyon three occasions were multiple P.pa- juvenile Lowland Copperheads Austrelaps su- genstecheri found together beneath the same perbus (n = 3) indicatethatthese snakesareall stone. On each ofthese occasions two skinks predatorsofPseudomoiapagenstecheri.Numer- were present (an adult and juvenile; two fe- ous P. pagenstecheri scales were found in the males; an adult male and female), and they samples. Regurgitated Tussock Skinks (n = 14) were well separated (>0.15 m). On five occa- ranged in size from neonates to adults. Three sions P.pagenstecheri were located with one or dead and partially consumed P. pagenstecheri more Garden Skinks Lampropholis guichenoti were located beneath stones occupied by large beneath the same stone, but not in direct con- scolopendridcentipedes;inoneinstanceacen- tact. During winter they were found cohabit- tipedewasobservedfeedingonadeadskink. ing with known predators: Parasutaflagellum Refugia habitatuseandactivity (n = 2) and juvenile Pseudonaja textilis (n = Shelterin,g P pagenstecheri were predominantly 1). They were also recorded beneath the same stones as Spotted Marsh Frogs Limnodynastes located beneath surface stones and in the grassy groundlayer(especiallythebaseoftussocks).They tasmaniensis (n = 5) and GrowlingGrassFrogs werealso foundbeneath fallenlimbsofthe River Litoria raniformis(n =2). Red Gum Eucalyptus camaldulensis (in northern Though primarily ground-dwelling in habit, grasslands) and other ground debris (e.g. lino- adult P pagenstecheri were often (n > 15) ob- served perched on the bladesandpeduncles of leum,corrugatediron,cardboard,etc.). Pseudemoiapagenstecheriweremostcommon KangarooGrasstussocksinthefield,particular- in grasslandhabitats thathadarelativelyopen, lyonovercastorcoolsunnydays.Theheightsat grassy, ground-layer. Fewer P pagenstecheri which lizards were perched did not exceed 0.6 were detected in dense stands ofungrazed and m. Perching was commonlyobserved in dense infrequentlyburned Kangaroo Grass Themeda (un-burnt)standsofKangaroo Grasswherelit- triandra than those with some grazing and/or tleor nosun-light reachedgroundlevel. When more frequent (mosaic) burning. Lizards were approached, these lizards would quickly alight uncommon in heavily grazed grasslands, even into the grassy ground-layer. They were also ifsurfacestonewascommon.Thefloristiccom- regularlyobserved baskingon topofstones. position of grasslands where P. pagenstecheri Behaviour occurred seemed less importantthan the pres- Field observations of the behaviour of P. pa- enceofagrassygroundlayer,sincetheseskinks genstecheri (besidesretreatingorbasking) were werefoundtobereasonablycommon in sever- few owing to the difficultly in approaching al grassland remnants that consisted predomi- lizards without disturbing them. Some note- nantlyofexoticgrassesandherbs. worthyobservations on thebehaviorofcaptive Pseudemoiapagenstecheri appearedto exploit individuals described here relate to interspe- suitable conditions for activity throughout the cificaggression,baskingposture, tail wriggling year. Individuals were observed either basking andsleepinginwater. or active in all months. Only in winter were 1. The largest male (SVL 62 mm) ofthe cap- theyinactiveforextendedperiods;however,on tive group consistently behaved aggressively sunny winter days lizards would emerge from towards otheradultmales,approachingthem cover to bask. Even when inactive beneath usually from behind and lunging at them stones during winter they were still capable of from a short distance, firmly grasping them 50 TheVictorianNaturalist Research Reports on the tail, bodyor head. Males subjected to sprint away from the snake. These tail move- these attackswouldattempt tobreakfree,but 4.ments were very similar to those exhibited retaliation was not observed. Immediately duringaggressiveinteractionsbetween males priorto andduringtheattacks,smallermales andin neonateswhenhandled (seeabove). exhibited slow lateral undulations ofthe tail. SomecaptiveP.pagenstecheri(n=4)wereob- Females and a small male were ignored by servedsleepinginthewaterbowl,ratherthan the large male and did not react to the skir- on the gravel substrate or beneath ground mishes taking place centimetres away from cover in the enclosure. The skinks slept fully them. At times the large male was so preoc- submerged except for the tip of the snout, cupied with biting that it would not release andemergedeachmorningtobask.Observa- its grip even when handled. The bites were tionsoccurredduringthewinter (June)when sometimes maintained for up to 30 seconds the minimum night air temperatures were (n=3).Noapparentinjuriesresultedfromthese slightlybelow 10°C. bites, though the large male was eventually Discussion separated from the group in order to prevent Body sizes and the timing ofreproduction re- aggressiveencounters. corded here are in close agreement with previ- Neonates would avoid adult skinks byseek- ousstudiesofaPpagenstecheripopulationfrom ing refuge when approached. Therefore they grasslands in Laverton, west of Melbourne. wateerleyamfotevrebdirttho.sAepdaerlaatyeienntchleosruermeosvailmmoefdnie-- AbdeullotngPe.rptahgeannstmeaclheesrianfdemtahleesSVarLemkenaonwsnantdo onates fromonelitterresulted inoneneonate extremes (22 to 69 mm) recorded in this work being consumed by its mother, and another correspondcloselywiththoseofpreviousstud- losing its tail. When handled, some neonates ies (Hutchinson and Donnellan 1992; Hudson commenced slow lateral undulations of the 1997). The heaviest non-gravid female found tail, sometimesfollowed bytwistingand flip- in this study was significantly heavier than pingofthebody. 2.alAlyecxuhriiboiutsedbbasykcianpgtipvoesstkuirnekswa(ns=oc5c)awsihoenn- psinroentvhi1io9su9s7wl)oy.rkdCeltu(t4e-cr8hm)isniwezadesf(wr4io.t0mh6itnvhsepr3se.mv2a0ilolug;sslayHmupddle-e- theyemerged to baskon sunnywintermorn- termined ranges (1-14: Ward 1978, Hudson ings. Within minutes ofemerging, the limbs, 1997) as were neonate size, mass and RCM one-by-one or occasionally in pairs, were (Hudson 1997, 1999). The significant negative raised clear of the substrate, fully extended allometry (proportional growth) in the SVL- and pressed flush against the body, with dig- mass relationship in females is possibly due to its pointing towards/along the tail. This gave theinclusionof(under-weight) post-parturient skinks a streamlinedappearance (Fig.4). The females in the sample. The timing ofparturi- rear feet were usuallypropped up on the tail tion (December-January)andthegrowth rate but in some skinks they were in their usual restingpositionbutwiththekneesawkwardly (i.e., the attainment ofadult size at 12 months ofage) inferred from the monthlydistribution pointing upwards. The basking posture was maintained for 5-13 minutes (n = 12), after ofSVLs (Fig. 2) wereboth consistentwithpre- viousstudies (Hudson 1997, 1999). which time the skinks became active. This The significance of the black rear limb samebaskingposturewasobservedinadultR pianggeonsntescuhnenryiwiinnttheerfdiaeyldst(hnat=w4e).re alsobask- poabtvcihoeuss isnincaed,ultto mthaelehuPmapangeenyseteactheleraist,istnhoety are neither brightly coloured nor prominently 3. Tail-wriggling was observed on four occa- located. Pseudemoia pagenstecheri were not sions in captive skinks in response to their observed to use their rearlimbs invisual com- being placed next to an enclosure containing munication; however, two species ofLampro- several Parasutaflagellum. Skinks reacted by pholis do so (Daly 1993; Torrand Shine 1994). cuenadsuilnagtiaollnsmoofvetmheenttailexlacsetpitngfo5r-s1l0owselcaotenrdasl It would be of interest to know whether the patchesareconspicuousoutsidethevisiblelight (n = 6). This was followed by a short rapid Vol 129 (2) 2012 51 Research Reports Fig. 4. An unusual basking posture exhibited by an adult Tussock Skink Pseudemoia pagenstecheri. spectrum (e.g. in the UV spectrum) since UV tobewidespread amongstskinkgenera. I have visualcapacityand structureswithhigh UVre- also observed overwintering Striped Skinks flectance are known in lizards (e.g. Fleishman Ctenotus robustuswith their rear limbs slightly etal. 1993;Blombergetal. 2001). Alternatively, adpressed with the feet resting up on the tail given the patches are most intense during the in a similar fashion to some basking P. pagen- cooler months of the year, they may instead stecheri. Sleeping in water has been observed aidinthermoregulation rather than communi- inwildGippslandWaterDragonsPhysignathus cation; but why they should occur mainly (or lesueurii howitti (Turner 1999) where it was exclusively) in males is unclear. Two published presumed to be of thermoregulatory benefit, photographswhere the blackrearlimb patches and this might also be true in P pagenstecheri areclearlyshownareinHutchinsonetal. (2001: although the behaviour has not been observed 35) andSwan etal (2004: 181). in the field. Infanticide by a female P pagen- Several behaviours reported here have been stecherihasbeenrecordedpreviouslyincaptiv- notedpreviouslyinP.pagenstecheriorreported ity(Hudson 1999). in other skink species. The climbing of grass Acknowledgements tussocks has been observed in populations of The author gratefully acknowledges the referees for P. pagenstecheri from the Australian Capital their improvements to the manuscript, andalso Val Territory (Bennett 1997) and also in the sym- Turnerformakingthe effortto locate several ofthe patric Striped Legless Lizard Delma impar references.SkinkswereheldincaptivityunderWild- (Turner2007a). Abaskingpostureverysimilar lifeLicenseP02006619. to that described above has been observed in References the Southern Water Skink Eulamprus tympa- BeTnenrertittorRy.(1(9N9a7t)ioRneapltiPlaersksanAdssForcoigastioofnthoefAtuhsetAraClTi,aWCaopditeanl num (see Fig. 31.10 in Hutchinson (1993)) and ACT) in the Mt Bartle Frere Skink Techmarscincus BlombergSP,OwensIPFandStuart-FoxD(2001)Ultraviolet reflectance in thesmall skink Carliapectorialis. Herpeto- jigurru(Turner2007b)indicatingthatitislikely logicalReview32(1), 16-17. 52 The VictorianNaturalist - 1 Research Reports DFallileinsyisldGiehzlmai(arc1dan9st9.aL3)JN.,)aLHUteounrruepesweu3taE6olR5f,abaue3nnh9daa7.vL2ie3oa(rl2)oM,f4g1(r.a1s9s93s)kiUnlktsra(vLiaomleptrvoipshioon STwhRSaoeynpmdtpniGesl,yeos)nShoMefaBNeGawnadSnodSuttSehawdalWritaelrJeRsR(2(129e09d04n4).)E(AgRgeFaeiendld/dNcGeluuwitcdHheolstliozaentdoh,ef Hudson S (1988) Phalangeal growth rings as a method of theviviparousAustralianSkink,Pseudemoiapagenstecheri ageing scincid lizards, and itsapplication to the studyof andthe identityofspecieswith TypeIII allantoplacenta- lifehistoryinLeiolopismaentrecasteauxiiandL.duperreyi. tion.JournalofHerpetology28(4),519-521. (UnpublishedBSc(Hons)thesis,LaTrobeUniversity,Mel- TorrGAandShineR(1994)Anethogramforthesmallscin- bourne) cid lizardLampropholisguichenoti. Amphibia-Reptilia 15, Hudson S (1997) Patterns oflifehistory, growth and mor- 21-34. phologyinsouth-easternAustralianskinks.(Unpublished TurnerG(1999)FieldobservationsofGippslandWaterdrag- PhDthesis,LaTrobeUniversity,Melbourne) ons Physignathus lesueuriihowittisleepingin water. Her- HudsonS (1999) Parturition in theTussockskink, Pseude- petofauna29(1),49-51. moiapagenstecheri.Herpetofauna29(1),58-59. Turner GS (2007a) Observations ofdiurnal activity in the Hutchinson MN (1993) FamilyScincidae. In FaunaofAus- Striped Legless LizardDelma impar. The Victorian Natu- tralia- Volume2AAmphibia&Reptilia,pp.261-279.Eds. ralist124(3),167-169. CJGlasby,GJBRossand PLBeesley.(AustralianGovern- TurnerG (2007b) Notesonthehabitsofthreeskinksfrom mentPublishingService,CanberraACT) theMtBartleFreresummit,North Queensland. Herpeto- Hutchinson MN and Donnellan SC (1992) Taxonomy and fauna37(1),2-7. genetic variation in the Australian lizards of the genus Ward PJ (1978) Evolutionary divergence within the lizard Pseudemoia (Scincidae: Lygosominae).JournalofNatural Leiolopisma entrecasteauxii. (Unpublished BSc (Hons) HuHticshtionrsyo2n6,M2,15S-w2a6i4n.RandDriessen M(2001)Snakesand thesis,LaTrobeUniversity,Melbourne) LizardsofTasmania.FaunaofTasmaniaHandbookNo.9. (Dept.PrimaryIndustries,Water&Environment/Univer- sityofTasmania,Hobart) Lararweial.lTShAe(V1i9c9t5o)riRaenptNialteusraalnidsta1m1p2h,ib1i6a0-n1s7o1f.theMelbourne Received5May2011;accepted22September201 SokalRRandRohlfFJ(1995)Biometry3edn.(WHFreeman 8cCo,NewYorkUSA) OneHundredand FiveYearsAgo Field Naturalists work: itsvalueto teachers By Hocking, B.A., Principal, Melbourne Continuation School J. Theworkdone...inthefieldshowedthatNature-studyisnotprimarilyaclass-roomsubject,norcanitbebest taughtbymeansofmuseumandtext-book.Classroomlessonsmayevenbeuninterestinganddisconnected. Onemaystudyformandstructure,andgainknowledge,butexpertsareagreedthatNature-studymustbegin inthefield.Movementandcolourarefoundthere,adaptationofstructuretoenvironmentislearntbythe sea-sideorinthetea-treeglade,therelationoftheinsecttotheplantandthebalanceofNaturecanonlybe studiedintheopen.Scaleinsectsdestroythehoneysuckle,insectivorousbirdsdestroytheseinturn.Again, ourbestthoughtsofNaturerestonarealisticback-ground.Someassociationformedlongsince,itmaybe, butreadytospringintobeingagainatthefirstsuggestion.Theflowerofthegorseisbeautifulinitself,but itsbeautyisintensifiedwhen,intheearlymorning,thehedgeofgoldenbloomsisseenwindingawaytothe horizon.Thegloryofsunriseandofsunset,thegrandeurofthe mountain rangepurpledbydistance,the profusion ofthefern gully, thesparkleand musicofthewaterfall, the majestyofthe gathering thunder- clouds,cannotbebroughtintotheschool-room.Outofdoorsthereisaccesstoappropriateconditions.Data mustbecollected,andageneralfamiliaritywith thingscultivated.Ageologicalspecimengivesnoideaof geologicaltime,adriedplanttrailswithitnothingofthegloryofskyandwoods,thatthelarvaoftheBuprestis isdestructivetotreesmeansnothingwhentold,buttoseethelarvaeatworkgivesmeaningtothestatement. From TheVictorianNaturalistXXIII,p.234, March7, 1907 Vol 129 (2) 2012 53