NORTH AMERICA SECONEDD ITION The Mitchell Map of North America, 1755 (Courtesy Geography and MapDivision, Library of Congress) NORTH AMERICA The Historical Geography of a Changing Continent Second Edition EDITED BY THOMAS F. McILWRAITH AND EDWARD K. MULLER ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD PUBLISHERS, INC Lanharn Boulder New York Plymouth, UK ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD PUBLISHERS, INC. Published in the United States of America by Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 www.rowmanlittlefield.com Estover Road Plymouth PL6 7PY United Kingdom Copyright 0 2001 by Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-PublicationD ata North America : the historical geography of a changing continent I [edited by] Thomas F. McIlwraith and Edward K. Mu1ler.-2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-7425-0018-1 (hbk. : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-7425-0018-7 (hbk. : alk. paper) ISBN-13: 978-0-7425-0019-8 (pbk. : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-7425-0019-5 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. North America-Historical geography. I. McIlwraith, Thomas F. 11. Muller, Edward K. E40.5.N69 2001 91 1'.74c21 2001019876 Printed in the United States of America @The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences-Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSLrNISO 239.48-1992. Contents Tables vi Figures vii Preface xi Part I Introduction The North American Past: Retrospect and Prospect Robert D. Mitchell Part I1 Colonization: 1490s-1770s European Encounters: Discovery and Exploration Louis De Vorsey The Spanish Borderlands Richard L. Nostrand France in North America Cole Harris The Colonial Origins of Anglo-America Robert D. Mitchell Colonial America in the 18th Century James 7: Lemon Part I11 Expansion: 1780s-1860s The Geographical Dimensions of a New Nation, 1780s-1820s Kenneth C. Martis Beyond the Appalachians, 181 5-1 860 Camille Earle The Northeast and Regional Integration, 1800-1 860 Paul A. Groves British North America, 1763-1 867 Thomas F: Mcllwraith Part IV Consolidation: 1860s-1920s Settling the Great Plains, 1850-1930: Prospects and Problems David J. Wishart The Far West, 1840-1920 Jeanne Kay Guelke and David Hornbeck Population Growth, Migration, and Urbanization, 1860-1920 David Ward The National Integration of Regional Economies, 1860-1920 David R. Meyer The Impact of Industrialism and Modernity on American Cities, 1860-1930 Michael P. Conzen Realizing the Idea of Canada Graeme Wynn Part V Reorganization: 1930s and Onward America between the Wars: The Engineering of a New Geography Peirce Lewis The Other America: Changes in Rural America during the 20th Century John C. Hudson The 20th-Century American City Edward K. Muller Canadian Cities in a North American Context Richard S. Harris Part VI Conclusion Historical Geography since 1987 Anne Kelly Knowles Sources for Recreating the North American Past Ronald E. Grim, Thomas A. Rumney, and Thomas l? Mcllwraith Index 483 About the Contributors 499 Tables 5.1 American Colonies: Estimated 17th- 12.1 Populations of the Far Western Century Populations 9 8 States, 1850-1920 6.1 Estimated Populations of the American 12.2 Major Cities in the Far West, Provinces, 1700-1780 120 1860-1920 6.2 Value of Exports to, and Imports from, 13.1 U.S. Population Composition and England, 1700-1776 136 Growth, 1840-1920 7.1 Relocation of State Capitals, 13.2 Decennial Immigration to the 1776-1812 146 United States, 1820-1919 7.2 U.S. Population, 1790-1830 155 13.3 Urban Residence of Foreign-Born 7.3 Population of the States 1790-1830 157 White Population, 1920 7.4 Top Ten U.S. Urban Places, 1790 13.4 Regional Representation of and 1830 158 Selected Foreign-Born Groups, 1860 7.5 Slave States and Free States, 13.5 Regional Representation of 1790-1 860 162 Northwest Europeans, 1890 9.1 U.S. Population by Region, 13.6 Regional Distribution of 1800-1 860 190 Selected Minority Groups, 1890 9.2 U.S. Cities of 25,000 Population and 1920 or More by Region, 1800-1 860 191 13.7 Regional Representation of "New" 9.3 Northeast U.S.: Population of Major Immigrants, 1890 and 1920 Urban Places, 1800-1 860 194 13.8 Regional Representation of 9.4 Northeast U.S.: Production of Selected Northwest Europeans, 1920 Crops, 18 40-1 860 195 14.1 Railroad Mileage Constructed 9.5 Northeast U.S.: Concentration of by Region for Selected Periods Selected Crops and Animals, 14.2 Change in Improved Farmland, 1840-1860 195 1860-1920 9.6 Northeast U.S.: Manufacturing Data, 14.3 Leading Wheat and Corn States, 1860 199 1860-1 900 9.7 Northeast U.S.: Manufacturing Data 14.4 Number of Cattle and Sheep in for Selected States, 1860 202 the West, 1890 and 1920 9.8 Northeast U.S.: Foreign-Born and 14.5 Leading Forestry Employment African American Proportions of States, 1880-1920 Population in the Ten Largest Cities, 14.6 Iron Ore Production, 1879-1920 1860 203 14.7 Crude Petroleum Output by Region, 9.9 Northeast U.S.: Manufacturing Cities 1900-1919 with 5,000 or More Manufacturing 14.8 Manufacturing Specialization in Employees, 1860 204 Regional Metropolises, 1880 9.10 Northeast U.S.: Population, 14.9 Manufacturing Specialization in Urbanization, and Industrialization, Small Industrial Cities, 1880 1860 204 15.1 Measures of American Urban 10.1 Farmland and Population, 185 1 226 Growth, 1840-1930 10.2 Urban Characteristics, 185 1 15.2 Indices of Chicago's Physical and 1871 228 Growth, 1860-1930 Figures Frontispiece The Mitchell Map of North 4.6 Farm Lots in a Hypothetical America, 1755 Seigneurie 2.1 The North Atlantic, a New 4.7 France in North America in 1700 Mediterranean 4.8 Louisbourg, 1742 2.2 Main Elements of the Process of 4.9 France in North America during the Exploration 18th Century 2.3 Monument of the Discoveries, near 4.10 Population Distribution near Lisbon Quebec, 1739 2.4 Worldview of Columbus and 4.11 The French Fur Trade, Early 1750s Real World 5.1 Early 17th-Century England 2.5 Early Transatlantic Voyages to 1535 5.2 Eastern Seaboard Native American 2.6 Diagrammatic Models of Several Groupings, 1600 and 1700 New World Hypotheses 5.3 Transatlantic Interactions 2.7 Later Transatlantic Voyages to 1609 5.4 17th-Century America: Principal 3.1 The Spanish Borderlands Territorial Disputes 3.2 An Ideal Civil Community after 5.5 17th-Century America: Population the Laws of the Indies Distribution 3.3 Florida, 1565-1819 5.6 17th-Century America: 3.4 New Mexico, 1598-1821 Local Territorial Organization 3.5 The Franciscan Church at Zuiii 5.7 17th-Century America: Patterns of in Ruins, 1873 Land Subdivision 3.6 The Palace of the Governors, Santa Fe, 5.8 A Maryland Tobacco Plantation New Mexico, about 1885 5.9 Farm Evolution in Massachusetts 3.7 Pimeria Alta, 1700-1821 5.10 Boston's First Town House, 3.8 Texas, 1716-1821 1657-171 1 3.9 Alta California, 1769-1 82 1 6.1 Population Distribution, 1700-1780 3.10a Mexico and the Southwest, 6.2 Dispersed Settlement in Northern 1821-1846 New Jersey, Middle of the 18th 3.10b Texas,. 1821-1846 Century 3.1 1 Las Vegas, New Mexico, in 6.3 Newtown, Pennsylvania: A Failed the Late 1860s Agricultural Village 3.12 Los Angeles, Looking East, 6.4 Urbanization in Southeastern as Sketched by Charles Koppel Pennsylvania, 1652-1765 about 1853 6.5 Colonial Trade and Economic 3.13 The Southwest, 1853 Activity, 1775 3.14 Mission Santa Inks in the Late 19th 7.1 National Boundaries, State Land Century Claims, and the Public Domain 4.1 France in North America, 1600-1 6 10 7.2 U.S. Center of Population, 4.2 Native Groups in the Early 17th 1790- 1990 Century 7.3 Native American Land Cessions, 4.3 The Expanding French Fur Trade, 1784-1819 1679-1685 7.4 Metes and Bounds Land Division 4.4 Acadian Marshlands in Western Pennsylvania 4.5 Population in St. Lawrence Valley, 7.5a Aerial Photograph of the Rectangular 1692 Land Survey System in Nebraska viii Figures 7.5b American Rectangular Land Survey 10.11 Railways of Canada and Selected System Main Lines in the United States, 7.6 Survey Districts of Ohio and Original 1853-1869 230 Seven Ranges 10.12 A Montreal Terrace in the 1860s 232 7.7 Long Lots in Southern Louisiana 11 .1 Native Cessions on the Great Plains, 7.8 Expansion of Settlement, 1860-1 890 239 1790-1820 11.2 The Advance of the Frontier on 7.9 Creation of New States, 1791-1848 the Great Plains, 1860-1 890 240 8.1 Freight Rates in the United States, 11.3 Dakota Territory in 1884 242 1784-1900 11.4 Guthrie, Oklahoma, May 2, 1889 247 8.2 Railroads and Western Canals, 1860 11.5 Cessions in Indian Temtory, 8.3 Accessibility to Railroads and Water 1889-1906 248 Transport in the Trans-Appalachian 11.6 Ration Day Issue at the Commissary, West, 1860 between 1889 and 1891 249 8.4 Trans-Appalachian Cities, 1860 11 .7 Main Street, Deadwood, 8.5 Generalized Core Regions of Staple Dakota Territory, circa 1860 250 Production in the Trans-Appalachian 11 .8 The Open-Range Cattle Kingdom, West, 1860 1866-1 887 25 1 8.6 Precipitation and Temperature in the 11 .9 "Our Home": Dugout near McCook, Middle of the 19th Century, Compared Nebraska, 1890s 254 with 1931-1960 11 .10 Population Density on the 8.7 Slaves as a Proportion of Total Great Plains, 1900 and 1930 256 Population, 1860 12.1 Physical Features of the West 262 8.8 Antislavery Politics and 12.2 Distribution of Native American Agricultural Production in Illinois Tribes in the Far West 264 during the Late 1840s 12.3 Early Exploration Routes in 9.1 Northeast: Urban Centers and the Far West 266 Population Density, 1800 and 1840 12.4 Temtorial Acquisition as a Result 9.2 The Mercantile City and the of Manifest Destiny 268 Emergence of Downtown 12.5 Population Spread and Density, 9.3 Northeast: Manufacturing 1850-1900 269 Cities, 1860 12.6 Development of Political Boundaries 9.4 Cotton Textile Towns in Eastern in the Far West 270 Massachusetts, 1831 and 1850 12.7 Improved Land, 1860-1900 272 10.1 Population, 1760s-1875 12.8 Mining Towns and Districts of 10.2 Trends in Selected Indicators the Far West 275 10.3 Native Northern America, 12.9 San Francisco, 1874 276 1760s-1820s 12.10 Astoria Harbor, Oregon, 1881 277 10.4 British American Territorial 12.11 Major Railroad Routes in Organization, 1763-1 867 the Far West, 1883 278 10.5a The Atlantic Region: The Seaward 12.12 Categories of Federal Lands in Focus the Far West 280 10.5b The Atlantic Region: The Landward 13.1 Source Areas of Immigrants to Focus the United States, 1820-1919 287 10.6 A Newfoundland Outport: Brigus 13.2 Regional Distribution of Foreign- South, Newfoundland, 1963 Born Immigrants: 1860, 1890, 10.7 Upper and Lower Canada and 1920 289 10.8 Land Disposal in Upper Canada, 13.3 Regional Distribution of the African Hypothetical Example American Population: 1860, 1890, 10.9 The Rural Ontario Landscape and 1920 293 10.10 Wheat Production in the 13.4 Proportion of "Old" Immigrants Great Lakes Region, about 1840 in American Cities, 1910 297 13.5 Proportion of "New" Immigrants 17.7 U.S. Farmland Acreage Decrease, in American Cities, 1910 1930-1 940 13.6 Immigrants in the Inner City: 17.8 African American Migration, Boston, 1905 World War I through World War I1 14.1 Railroads in 1860 18.1 Population Density, 1990 14.2 Railroads in 1880 18.2 Railways and Post Offices 14.3 Agricultural Regions in 1920 in Southwestern Minnesota, 1920 14.4 Regional Industrial Systems in 18.3 Plat of Almora, Early 20th Century the American Manufacturing Belt 18.4 Agricultural Change in the 20th about 1880 Century 15.1 Functional Structure of the City 19.1 Harlem, Art Workshop System, 1840-1930 19.2 Depression Soup Kitchen, 15.2 Case Studies: South Dakota and Chicago, 1931 Eastern Pennsylvania 19.3 Overcrowded Poor White Housing, 15.3 Integration of the City System, Chicago 1840-1930 19.4 Expressway Cutting through 15.4 The Urban Extension and Social Downtown Miami Geography of New York, 1860-1900 19.5 Stateway Gardens High-Rise Public 15.5 Industrial Detroit, 1920, and Housing Project, Chicago Relieving Chicago's Congestion, 19.6 Chess Game, Fountain Square, 1868-1926 Downtown Cincinnati 16.1 Modem Canada 19.7 Inner Harbor Redevelopment Area, 16.2 Territorial Expansion of Canada Downtown Baltimore 16.3 Railroad Ties 20.1 British Immigrants Arriving 16.4 Canada's Population Distribution, in Toronto, 1912 1921 20.2 The New Suburban Works of the 16.5 Transcontinental Railroads, 191 5 Montreal Locomotive and Machine 17.1 Paved Roads, 1926 and 1943 Company, 1905 17.2 Hydroelectric Dam Building, 20.3 Africville, in Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1925-1945 1960s 17.3 Agricultural Calamities of the 1920s 20.4 The Cover of Jon Caulfield's book and 1930s City Form and Everyday Life (1994) 17.4 Out-Migration, 1935-1940 Showing a Gabled Row House 17.5 In-Migration, 1935-1940 20.5 "Plexes" in Montreal 17.6 U.S. Farmland Acreage Increase, 20.6 The Opening of a New Streetcar 1930-1940 Line in Suburban Toronto, 1925