First published in Great Britain in 1993 by Dedication Osprey, an imprint of Reed Consumer Books Limited, For Jane, with thoughts of Jumièges. Michelin House, 81 Fulham Road, London SW3 6RB and Auckland, Melbourne, Singapore and Toronto Acknowledgements ©. 1993 Reed International Books Limited I should like to thank the following for many hours of useful discussion, argument and for advice: Andrew Reprinted 1994 (twice) Bodley, Chris Dobson, Ian Eaves, Brian Gilmour, All rights reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of private study, research, criticism or review, as Jeremy Hall, Mark Harrison, Dr. David Nicolle and permitted under the Copyright Designs and Patents Act, Karen Watts. 1988, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, electrical, chemical, mechanical, optical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright Artist's Note owner. Enquiries should be addressed to the Publishers. Readers may care to note that the original paintings from which the colour plates in this book were ISBN 1 85532 270 6 prepared are available for private sale. All reproduction copyright whatsoever is retained by the Filmset in Great Britain publisher. All enquiries should be addressed to: Printed through Bookbuilders Ltd, Hong Kong Scorpio Gallery PO Box 475 Hailsham E. Sussex BN27 2SL The publishers regret that they can enter into no correspondence upon this matter. Publisher's Note Readers may wish to study this title in conjunction with the following Osprey publications: MAA 85 Saxon, Viking and Norman Armies MAA 171 Saladin and the Saracens MAA 89 Byzantine Armies 886-1118 MAA 75 Armies of the Crusades MAA 231 French Medieval Armies 1000-1300 Elite 9 The Normans Elite 3 The Vikings Campaign 13 Hastings 1066 For a catalogue of all books published by Osprey Military please write to: The Marketing Manager, Consumer Catalogue Department, Reed Consumer Books Ltd, Michelin House, 81 Fulham Road, London SW3 6RB THE NORMAN KNIGHT HISTORICAL to have been Norwegian but the settlement of Vikings soon saw the new creation given the name of BACKGROUND Normandy — land of the Northmen. It was not long before the Normans in upper Normandy, their ducal During the Viking incursions of the 9th and 10th base at Rouen, began to adapt themselves to French centuries, England and north-western France custom and largely adopted what is now termed the suffered particularly. In or about 911, Charles III Old French tongue. In lower Normandy Scandi- (the Simple), King of the West Franks, was forced to navian customs tended to linger and for a time the allow a chieftain called Rollo, operating in the Seine two areas lived uneasily with one another. This state valley, to settle his men on territory in what is now was ended after a revolt of lords, largely in Lower upper or eastern Normandy bounded by the rivers Normandy, was crushed at Val-és-Dunes in 1047 by Bresle, Epte, Avre and Dives. The Treaty of St.- the youthful Duke William II and King Henry I of Clair-sur-Epte has come down in a semi-legendary France. Thereafter William set about establishing a form. In return for the gift of land the king would be a ducal presence in the west at Caen and tied his lords nominal overlord, possibly recognising Rollo's con- more closely, assisted by the old unifying boundaries version to Christianity and receiving military aid. of metropolitan Rouen. The new state would also act as a buffer against further raiding. Rollo soon expanded his territories into lower or western Normandy. In 924 the Bessin and districts of Sees and Exmes were granted to him, whilst his son and successor, William Longsword, gained the Cotentin and Avranchin in 933. The newly defined boundaries fitted less those of the Carolingian province of Neustria than the old Roman province of the Second Lyonnaise. From this, Rouen had become the metropolitan head of the province and remained as the most important city of the new Norman duchy. The new settlers spoke Scandinavian and had come to a country in which the native population was Gallo-Roman with an overcul- ture of Germanic Frankish lords. Rollo at least seems Knights of the early nth weapon rather than century lunge at one couched under the arm in another with lances, as the charge. Note the mail portrayed in 'The Vision of neck-guard on the left- Habukuk' from the hand figure who otherwise northern French Bible of appears to be unarmoured, St Vaast. The horses are suggesting that, unusual at shown at a standstill as this date, the mail is opposed to the galloping possibly attached to the stance usual in the later brim of the helmet. nth and 12th century. It (Bibliothèque Municipale, also highlights the use of Arras, Ms 435) the lance as a thrusting 3 The Norman dukes had always had an uneasy each wished to control all. William Rufus succeeded relationship with the French king. As nominal his father in 1087 but died whilst hunting in the New overlord they owed him feudal fealty and whilst Forest in 1100. His young brother, Henry, took the Normandy was in formation the king was content. throne and imprisoned his elder brother, Robert of After Duke William's victory at Val-é-Dunes the Normandy. Tragedy robbed Henry of a male heir new stability disturbed the monarch who decided the when his own son drowned in the White Ship disaster duchy was becoming too powerful for comfort. He in the Channel. Consequently civil war broke out on therefore allied himself with the Angevins on the Henry's death in 1135 between his daughter, Ma- southern borders of Normandy. Anjou would always thilda, and his nephew, Stephen, who had been made be a rival for the land along the southern marches and king by barons hostile to a woman's rule. here lay perhaps the most contested border. In 1054 The war made the lords aware of how difficult it and again in 1057 King Henry, allied with Count was to owe fealty to a duke of Normandy and an Geoffrey of Anjou, led forces into Normandy. He was English king. On Stephen's death in 1154 Mathilda's beaten off both at Mortemer and Varaville, leaving son, Henry, took the crown. Henry, who had inher- William in a strong position. ited the county of Anjou from his father, marked the When William's second cousin, Edward of Eng- beginning of the Plantagenet line of kings; England land, died in 1066 the Duke swore he had been named was now part of an Angevin empire that stretched as heir during that king's previous exile in Nor- from the borders of Scotland to the Pyrenees. The mandy. The Angevin count and the French king had country, of course, was still essentially an Anglo- Norman realm. However, now lords were forced to both died in 1060; the new king was a minor in the renounce dual control of cross-Channel possessions, wardship of William's father-in-law; the Bretons to either settling in England or Normandy. It was the the west had been given a show of strength. Under French king, Philip II Augustus, who finally wrested these auspicious circumstances the duke made his bid the duchy from the control of the English crown. for the English crown. Harold, the new king, was Unsuccessful against Henry's bellicose son, Richard beaten near Hastings and William at a stroke had the Lionheart, he nevertheless managed to take it brought a new and rich kingdom under the sway of from Richard's brother, John. Normandy. As king of England he now increased his power enormously. Unfortunately the cohesion of The energy of the Normans carried them beyond this situation was never strong. His sons squabbled as Normandy and England. At the same time as adventurers were conquering England, other Nor- mans were carving out kingdoms in southern Italy and Sicily. Mercenaries had fought in a revolt against the Byzantines in Italy as early as 1017 and began settling in about 1029 but it was not until 1041 that Robert Guiscard and his followers began to seize land for themselves. The Pope recognised their pos- sessions around Apulia and Calabria in 1059, hoping to use the Normans as a counter to pressures from the emperor in the German lands to the north. By 1071 Circular shields were used constructed from butted until about AD 1000 when planks, presumably glued they were supplemented together, and is fitted with by the kite-shaped variety. a typical Scandinavian low This survivor is from the hemispherical boss. The Gokstadship burial in metal bands at rear are Norway and dates to about modern supports. goo. Although a funeral (University Museum of piece it was probably- National Antiquities, Oslo. made in similar fashion to Photograph: L.Pedersen) war shields. It is 4 they had taken Bari, effectively ending Byzantine control. The invasion of Sicily began in 1060 and was not completed for 31 years. Initially ruled separately, the states came under one authority in 1127, being recognised as a kingdom three years later. In about 1134 a successful invasion of Tunisia was under way, taking advantage of internal feuding between the Zirid rulers. From 1148 until its collapse by 1160 the Normans ruled an area from Tunis to the Gulf of Sirte. Despite attempts to attack the Greek mainland and the capture of Thessaloniki, the Siculo-Norman kingdom was riven by discord which ended in 1194 with the invasion by the German Hohenstaufen Emperor, Henry VI. Normans were also very much in evidence in the 1st Crusade. Two of the leaders were Duke Robert of Normandy and Bohemond of Taranto with his contingent of south Italian fighters. Bohemond went on to set up the principality of Antioch in Syria. Situated on a trade route and the richest Crusader state, the port of Lattakieh was the final town of the principality to fall to the Muslims in 1287. CHRONOLOGY 911 Treaty of St.-Clair-sur-Epte. Rollo becomes first duke of Normandy. 931 Death of Rollo. Succeeded by his son, William I Longsword. 942 Death of William I. Succeeded by his son, Richard the Fearless. 996 Death of Richard. Succeeded by his son, Richard II, the Good. 1017 (?) First Norman mercenaries arrive in south- ern Italy. 1026 Death of Richard II. Succeeded by his son, Richard III. 1027 Death of Richard III. Succeeded by his bro- ther, Robert the Magnificent. 1028 (?) Birth of William the Conqueror. The cutting sword usually about 1150, while the 12th 1035 Death of Robert. Succeeded by his illegitimate had a fuller running for century sword on the right much of the blade's length. has a disc pommel and is son as Duke William II. These examples are fitted possibly Italian. (By kind 1041 Battle of Monte Maggiore. Italo-Norman mer- with a tea-cosy pommel permission of James from as early as the 1 0th Pickthorn. Reproduced by cenary rebels defeat Byzantine army. century, a brazil-nut permission of the Trustees 1047 Battle of Val-és-Dunes. Duke William defeats pommel, popular from the of the Wallace Collection, late 10th century until London) Norman rebels. 5 This typical 'Norman' integral nasal. The rivet This segmented helmet is suggest that the nasal was helmet is actually from holes round the lower edge variously reported as usually attached to a brow- Olmütz in Moravia though would have secured an found in northern France band, the segment joints probably contemporary in internal lining. (Hofjagd- and in the River Thames. being at front, sides and date. Of one-piece und Rüstkammer, Vienna) The nasal is a restoration. back. (Metropolitan construction it has a slight Many such helmets shown Museum of Art, New York) medial ridge and an in the Bayeux Tapestry 1053 Battle of Civitate. Apulian Normans defeat 1079 William defeated at Gerberoi by his son, Papal army. Robert. 1054 Battle of Mortemer. Normans defeat invading 1081 Battle of Durazzo. Italo-Norman army of forces of Henry I of France and Geoffrey of Robert Guiscard and son, Bohemond of Tar- Anjou. anto, defeats Byzantine army. 1057 Battle of Varaville. Normans destroy rearguard 1087 9 Sept. Death of King William I. William of invading forces of King Henry and Geoffrey Rufus succeeds as William II. Robert becomes of Anjou. Duke of Normandy. 1060 Norman conquest of Sicily begins. 1091 Norman conquest of Sicily completed. 1066 28 Sept. Duke William invades England. 1097 Battle of Dorylaeum. Forces of 1st Crusade, 1066 14 Oct. Battle of Hastings. King Harold of including Italo-Norman of Bohemond, hard England defeated by Duke William. pressed until 2nd column surprises and de- 1066 25 Dec. William is crowned King of England in feats Turks. Westminster Abbey. 1098 Bohemond captures Antioch 1070 Final major revolts in England put down. 1100 Bohemond becomes Prince of Antioch. 1710 Capture of Bari in southern Italy by the William II killed in New Forest. Younger Normans. brother Henry becomes King of England. 1072 Capture of Palermo in Sicily by the Normans. 1106 Battle of Tinchebrai. Henry I defeats and 6 • A Polish helmet composed of four segments riveted together, a type common in the west. This example is gilded. (Liverpool Museum, on loan to the Royal Armouries) • The helmet of St Wenceslas in Prague is traditionally associated with that saint and may be of 10th-century date. Although the skull has been raised in one piece the nasal is attached to an applied brow-band. The latter bears decoration which has led some to believe the helmet was originally from northern Europe. imprisons his brother, Duke Robert of Normandy. 1118 Battle of Alencon. Henry I defeated by Geof- frey of Anjou whilst trying to relieve the castle. 1119 Battle of Bremule. Henry I defeats invading force of Louis VI of France. 1124 Battle of Bourgthéroulde. Household knights of Henry I defeat rebel Waleran of Meulan. 1132 Battle of Nocera. Roger II of Sicily defeated by Apulian Norman rebels. 1135 Death of Henry I. Civil war breaks out in England over disputed succession between Henry's nephew, Stephen, and his daughter, Mathilda. 1138 Battle of the Standard (Northallerton). Army of Stephen defeats David I of Scotland. 1141 Battle of Lincoln. Robert of Gloucester and rebel forces come to relief of city, defeat and capture Stephen. Exchange of Stephen for Robert when the latter captured trying to break out of Winchester later that year. 7 1148 Norman province in North Africa established. Over the shirt came the tunic, again put on over 1154 Death of Stephen. Accession of Henry II, son the head. It was knee or calf-length with long sleeves of Mathilda and Geoffrey, Count of Anjou. that sometimes were puckered at the wrist, and was 1160 End of Norman province in North Africa. hitched up over a waist girdle or belt. Instead of a 1189 Death of Henry II and accession of his son, wide neck opening some tunics had a smaller one Richard I (Lionheart). provided with a vertical slit at the neck which 1190 3rd Crusade. Capture of Richard. facilitated putting it on and which might be closed by 1194 Richard ransomed and returns. Norman king- a pin or a brooch. The tunic might be decorated with dom of Italy and Sicily falls to Emperor Henry embroidered bands at the cuff, neck or hem and VI. occasionally the upper arm, where the band probably 1199 Death of Richard I at siege of Châlus castle in also served to hide the join between the sleeve and the France. Accession of brother, John. main tunic. Simple all-over designs were also used. Some tunics were slit at the sides. A super-tunic 1204 Loss of Normandy to Philip II of France. might be worn over the tunic when the knight was not 1287 Port of Lattakieh, last possession of princip- in armour. This was similar to the main tunic but ality of Antioch, falls to Muslims. sometimes a little shorter, and might have looser sleeves. On ceremonial occasions those of high rank APPEARANCE might wear long tunics. AND A rectangular or semicircular cloak of varying length provided extra warmth. It was fastened by ties EQUIPMENT or a brooch at the front or on the right shoulder to keep the arm free but cloaks were not usually worn when in armour. A purse (a pouch tied at the neck) might be Many, if not most, items of the dress and armour carried under the tunic, suspended from the girdle worn and the weapons used by the Norman knight which appeared at intervals from the braies. Gold or could be seen in much of north-western Europe at silver rings were worn and were also a sign of wealth, this time and were not specific to him alone. When echoed in the quality of brooches or pins worn. The good sword blades might be imported and fresh hair in the 10th century initially may have been long armour could be had from the battlefield, such in Scandinavian style, perhaps worn in a heavy intermixing of pieces is hardly surprising. fringe. Some may latterly have copied the continental bowl crop round the tops of the ears. In the nth The 10th and 11th centuries century the back and sides were shaved in a distinc- tive fashion which can be seen on the Bayeux Next to his skin the Norman knight wore a linen shirt Tapestry but which did not last. Faces were usually which was pulled on over the head. Underwear clean shaven. In England during the reign of Rufus consisted of a baggy pair of long breeches or braies (1087-1100) very long hair and beards came into which often reached the ankles and were tied under vogue, possibly helped by the longer hairstyle worn the shirt with a waist girdle. They tended to be close by the Anglo-Scandinavians. fitting from knee to ankle. Woollen or linen knee- length stockings or chausses might be worn over The basic body defence of the Norman knight them, often having an embroidered band at the top was the mailcoat. Mail consisted of numerous small which may have served as a garter. Very occasionally iron rings each interlinked with four others to form a the chausses reached above the knee; a few were fitted flexible defence. The coat so formed was pulled on with a stirrup instead of a foot. Leg bandages were over the head. Many of the first Normans would not sometimes worn over the braies or chausses, bound have possessed any mail at all. Those who did would spirally from the foot to below the knee. The criss- have had a coat which reached perhaps to the hip only cross method of fastening was a style reserved for the and would be provided with short or elbow-length nobility. Shoes were of leather and closed with thongs sleeves. During the first half of the 1 1th century there which passed through slits cut in the shoe. was a tendency for the coat to lengthen to knee length 8 • Tenth- and 11th-century prick spurs often terminated in a small point or points. The arms are always straight. The gilded spur of the knight is rarely borne out in finds of this period; many spurs are of iron, while those showing evidence of gilding are usually of copper-alloy. (By kind permission of Anthony de Reuck) • prick spur of the second half of the nth century from Winchester castle, (Winchester Excavation Committee) A Norman horseshoe of •12th or 13th-century the 11th or12th century. prick spur, showing the The wavy edge and curved spur arm and countersunk holes are angled shank. (By courtesy typical of the period. (By of the Board of Trustees, kind permission of British Museum) Anthony de Reuck) forms of the mailcoat continued to be worn, rather by infantry than cavalry, throughout the century but the longer style had become usual by the time of the Norman Conquest. Occasionally the neck of the mailcoat was exten- ded to provide a protective hood or coif. This was the origin of the word associated with such a coat— hauberk—which came from the Old German word for a neck-guard — hals berg. Indeed a few hoods may or even just below the knees. In order to facilitate have been made separately from the mailcoat but if movement, and' to allow a rider to sit his horse more this is so it was a fashion which did not last. Several easily, the skirts were usually slit up to the fork at the shown on the Bayeux Tapestry lack any indication of front and rear. When mounted, this allowed the skirt rings which suggests they were of leather. to hang naturally over the thigh at each side. Some of On the front of a number of hauberks seen on the the earlier coats may still have been made with side Tapestry, worked within 20 years of the Battle of vents, a fashion better suited to footsoldiers. Short Hastings, several straps may be seen. Some are 9 arranged as squares and some as horizontal lines at up in a similar manner to that on the capital. the neck, the latter also seen on mailcoats worn by the However, we are left to wonder whether those with English. The exact function of such features are only a single horizontal strap at the throat are unknown. They are rarely seen outside the Bayeux supposed to have such a flap closed or whether they Tapestry, only appearing on a few other contempor- simply echo the edging straps which appear on many ary illustrations. One theory is that they represent a mailcoats on the tapestry. Again, the scene of loose flap of mail hanging down prior to being tied up hauberks being carried, together with some of the over the throat and chin. This, the ventail, is certainly other sources, illustrate no mail hood to which such a mentioned in the Song of Roland of about 1100. flap would be tied, unless it is implied that it is Moreover, just such a square is shown in the open and hanging down loose at the rear. An alternative idea is closed position on a mid 12th-century sculpted that the square represents a loose mail flap tied over a capital at Clermont Ferrand, France. A few figures on vertical slit at the neck opening, which can be seen on the Bayeux Tapestry do appear to have a flap drawn other illustrations of such coats and was common on The Bayeux Tapestry was probably worked within 20 years of the Battle of Hastings. Here Count Guy of Ponthieu appears to wear a sleeveless coat of scale armour when receiving Duke William's messengers. (Bayeux Tapestry. With special permission of the town of Bayeux) 10