Notes Introduction 1. The question of whether to use the phrase 'women's movement' or the plural 'women's movements' is a thorny one for academics and activists, especially with reference to the global level. To speak of a single women's movement may attribute too great a unity to what can be perceived only as a plurality of activities and approaches, diversified by class, culture, region and the like. Yet to speak of women's movements in the plural raises concerns about what, if any, commonality there is among these groups and whether it is possible to speak of them in a global context. I will be using the plural women's movements since it reflects the diversity among women while recognizing they may organize around common goals and concerns. 1 Assessing International Relations Theory: Nonstate Actors, Change and Gender 1. Michael Banks (1985) suggests three paradigms currently in existence: realism, pluralism and structuralism. I have chosen to separate world systems theory and its precursors from the work of Robert Cox and other critical or neo-Gramscian theorists since there is enough significant difference to warrant this. Both Mark Hoffman ( 1987) and Sandra Whitworth (1989) also make this distinction. 2. Cox (1986) goes further to argue that there is a significant difference between the classical realism of E.H. Carr which has a broader scope and could include social, economic and ideological factors, and neo-realism which has a much narrower focus and is a theoretical response to the Cold War. 3. Willetts includes women's groups as a subsection of communal groups because they are dealing with issues of group identity and status. 4. Some examples of this literature are Mitrany (1943), Haas (1958, 1975, 1976). 5. Wallerstein distinguishes between a world-system and a world-economy in the following way. A world-system is 'a unit with a single division of labor and multiple cultural systems. It follows logically that there can, however, be two varieties of such world-systems, one with a common political system and one without. We shall designate these respectively as world-empires and world-economies' (Wallerstein, 1979, p. 5). 2 Nonstate Actors, Change and Gender: A Framework for Analysis 1. Although Walker does not use neo-Gramscian theory as his starting point, he does, at least in the works cited here, adhere to its underlying commitments and thus I include him in this approach. 160 Notes 161 2. Stephen Gill (1990) gives a good example of how the Trilateral Commission has organic intellectuals who help to organize the hegemonic order. 3. Whitworth (1994) provides an excellent and extensive analysis of these feminist approaches to international relations. 4. See for example Zald and McCarthy's discussion of social movement organizations (1987). 5. Or as Jane Jenson describes it, 'whether any of them defined "women" as their collective subject' (1987, p. 68). 3 Challenging Gender Relations at the International Level, 1840-1920 I. See Appendix I for a complete list. See also Sherrick, 1982, and Hurwitz, 1977, for a further discussion of these groups. 2. There were indigenous feminist movements prior to the arrival of foreign activists, often linked to nationalist movements (Jayawardena, 1986, p. 19). 3. For example, Mrs Philip Snowden [sic] writes of her trips to Berne to attend the meetings of the Second International, and the International Women's Congress in Zurich in 1919 (Snowden, 1921). 4. This clause led to the establishment of an advisory committee on these issues in 1921. 5. Jane Addams of the United States, Charlotte Despard and Chrystal Macmillan of Great Britain, Gabrielle Duchene of France, Rosa Genoni of Italy and Clara Ragaz of Switzerland. 4 Institutionalizing Gender Relations in International Organizations, 1920-70 l. This was a network of 12 international and five national organizations that worked with the League of Nations and the International Labour Conference (League of Nations, 1938, pp. 26-7). 2. This new name was adopted by the International Women's Suffrage Alliance in 1926 (Whittick, 1979, p. 94). 3. The WWP was started in 1938 but was overwhelmed by the war, joined with ERI in 1941 and lost much of its organizational base during the war (Becker, 1981, pp. 181-3). It began work again in 1945 at the San Francisco Conference, led initially by members of the National Women's Party, and continued through the 1940s under the leadership of Lady Pethick-Lawrence (Equal Rights, 1946a, 1947). 4. The Committee of Representatives of Women's International Organizations, in their 1931 statement (League of Nations, 1931, pp. 7-14), claimed that women began to work on this issue internationally as early as 1905. I can find no evidence to support this claim. 5. Two qualifications were added to the report (League of Nations, 1931, p. II). 6. The first group initially included the Equal Rights International, but a week later they withdrew their support for the report. 7. During the first half of the first session of the General Assembly, the women representatives, alternate representatives and advisers presented an open letter 162 Notes to the women of the world calling for the increased participation of women in national and international affairs (Yearbook of the UN, 1947, pp. 77-8). 8. Pandit was the daughter of the president of the Indian National Congress and president of the All-India Women's Conference from 1941-3. She was the first woman leader of a delegation to the UN General Assembly (UN Weekly Bulletin 1946, p. 15). 9. It has long been argued that the WIDF is a front organization for the communist governments of Eastern Europe and there seems to be evidence to support this, especially in its early years. 5 Making Global Connections Among Women, 1970-90 l. The Appendix lists the groups with their consultative status as of 1989. 2. There are three levels of status within ECOSOC arrangements: I or general status is available to groups that are concerned with most of the activities of the United Nations and represent major segments of the population; II or special status is available to groups with an expertise in only a few areas; and, the Roster is available for groups that can make an occasional and useful contribution to the work ofECOSOC (ECOSOC resolution l296(XLIV)). 3. TheACWW withdrew in 1987. 4. . The information in the following paragraphs was gleaned from interviews with members of the established groups and officials of the United Nations Secretariat, personal observation at international conferences and a review of several newsletters from established groups, including the International Alliance of Women and Women's International Democratic Federation. 5. FINRRAGE was initially known as FINNRET (Feminist International Network on New Reproductive Technologies) but its name was changed during the 1985 emergency conference on new reproductive technologies ('Feminist Forum', 1984; 'Feminist Forum',l985a; 'Feminist Forum', l985b). 6. Initially this network was called Women for a Meaningful Summit. 7. This group was initially called World Women in Defence of the Environment. 6 Shifting the Focus on Women in the United Nations: Women and Development, 1970-90 l. In neither case was the use of the term development limited to that of development assistance or aid. Rather, in line with the broad definition of development used in the UN Development Decades, it referred to the entire range of policies and practices that are aimed at the improvement of the well being and full participation of the population as well as a fair distribution of benefits (UNGA resolution 35/56 Annex, para. 8). 2. This is the negotiating group of nations from the South within the United Nations. While it began with 77 countries, and hence the name, it currently has approximately 120 members. 3. A World Congress for International Women's Year was held in Berlin from 20-4 October 1975. It was sponsored by the German women's committee Notes 163 and the documents resulting from this conference indicated a socialist flavour. Even though almost 2000 people attended, it had very little impact on the international level (Documents ... , 1975; 'IWY Congress ... , 1976; 'World Congress ... ', 1976). 4. This is not a narrow discussion of economic development issues alone. Rather, women and development is used to mean the entire range of women's concerns and the ways in which they are interrelated. The review proceeds by organizing the discussion around five issues: equality; access to productive resources, income and employment; access to services; participation in decision-making; and information. 5. For example, the International Civil Aviation Organization, Universal Postal Union, the International Telecommunication Union, the World Meterological Organization and the World Intellectual Property Organization. As well, a number of the research institutes within the UN may not need to participate since INSTRA W was given the primary responsibility for research on women. Appendix: Women's International Organizing, 1840-1990 1 1840 World Anti-Slavery Convention, where American women delegates were refused admittance. 1852 International women's peace publication, Sisterly Voices. 1868-71 International Association of Women. 1883 World Women's Christian Temperance Union (WWCTU) [identity oriented, religious] ECOSOC II. 1888 International Council of Women [issue-oriented, international cooperation], ECOSOC I, UNESCO, ILO, WHO, FAO, UNICEF, UNCTAD, UNDP, UNEP, UNIDO. 1890 General Federation of Women's Clubs (GFWC) [service-oriented]. 1893 Girls' Brigade International [identity-oriented, religious]. 1894 World Young Women's Christian Association (WYWCA) [identity oriented, religious], ECOSOC II, UNESCO, ILO, FAO, UNICEF, UNHCR. 1899 International Council of Nurses (ICN)2 [identity-oriented, professional affiliation], ECOSOC Roster, WHO, ILO, UNESCO. 1904 International Alliance of Women (lAW) [initially known as International Women's Suffrage Alliance; issue-oriented, equality of women], ECOSOC I, UNESCO, ILO, FAO, UNICEF, UNCTAD, UNEP, WHO, UNFPA. 1907 Socialist International Women (SIW) [initially called Socialist Women's International; identity-oriented, socialist], ECOSOC II, UNESCO, ILO. 1908 International Federation for Home Economics (IFHE) [identity-oriented, professional affiliation], ECOSOC II, UNESCO, ILO, FAO, UNICEF, WHO. 1910 World Union of Catholic Women's Organizations (WUCWO) [identity oriented, religious], ECOSOC II, UNESCO, ILO, FAO, UNICEF. International Association of Liberal Religious Women (IALRW) [identity-oriented, religious]. 1911 St. Joan's International Alliance (SJIA) [initially called St. Joan's Social and Political Alliance; identity-oriented, religious], ECOSOC II, UNESCO, ILO. 164 Women's International Organizing, 1840-1990 165 1912 International Council of Jewish Women (ICJW) [identity-oriented, religious], ECOSOC II, UNESCO, ILO, UNICEF. 1915 Women's International League for Peace and Freedom (WILPF) [initially called the International Committee of Women for Permanent Peace; issue-oriented, peace and international cooperation], ECOSOC II. 1915 27-30 April, The Hague International Congress of Women, 1500-2000 people from 11 countries attended. 1917 Altrusa International (AI)3 [service-oriented business and professional], ECOSOC Roster. 1919 Medical Women's International Association (MWIA) [identity-oriented, professional, medical], ECOSOC II, WHO, UNICEF. 1919 International Federation of University Women (IFUW) [identity oriented, university, international cooperation], ECOSOC II, UNESCO, ILO, UNICEF. 1919 Zonta International (ZI) [service-oriented, business and professional], ECOSOC I, UNESCO, UNICEF, ILO. 1919 12-19 May, Zurich International Congress of Women, 150 women from 16 countries attended. 1920 Women's International Zionist Organization (WIZO) [issue- and identity-oriented, social welfare and education], ECOSOC II, UNICEF. League of Jewish Women [identity-oriented, religious/cultural]. 1921 International Cooperative Women's Guild [later became ICA Women's Committee; issue-oriented, cooperation, mothers, disarmament]. 1922 International Confederation of Midwives (ICM) [identity-oriented, professional, medical], ECOSOC Roster, WHO, ILO, UNICEF. 1924 International Committee of Women Trade Unionists [identity-oriented, working women, linked to International Federation of Trade Unionists]. 1925 Commonwealth Countries League (CCL) [issue-and identity-oriented, international cooperation]. Ladies' Hairdressing International [identity-oriented, hairdressing]. 1928 World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts (WAGGS) [identity oriented, young women], ECOSOC II, UNESCO, FAO, ILO, UNICEF, WHO. Soroptimist International (SI) [identity-oriented, professional], ECOSOC I, UNESCO, ILO. International Federation of Women in Legal Careers (IFWLC) [identity oriented, professional, legal], ECOSOC II, UNESCO, ILO, FAO, UNICEF. 166 Appendix International League of Mothers and of Women Teachers for the Promotion of Peace [identity-and issue-oriented, peace]. 1929 Open Door International for the Economic Emancipation of the Woman Worker [issue-oriented, women workers], ECOSOC Roster. 1930 Equal Rights International [issue-oriented, equal rights]. Associated Country Women of the World (ACWW) [issue-and identity oriented, international relations], ECOSOC II, UNESCO, FAO, UNICEF. International Federation of Business and Professional Women (IFBPW) [identity-oriented, business and professional], ECOSOC I, UNESCO, ILO, UNICEF, UNIDO. 1931 Peace and Disarmament Committee of the Women's International Organizations [issue-oriented, peace and disarmament]. 1934 International Inner Wheel (IIW) [service-oriented], ECOSOC Roster. 1938 World Women's Party (WWP) [issue-oriented, equal rights]. 1939 World Federation of Methodist Women (WFMW) [identity-oriented, religious], ECOSOC II. 1944 International Federation of Women Lawyers (IFWL) [identity-oriented, professional, lawyers], ECOSOC II, UNESCO, ILO. 1945 Women's International Democratic Federation (WIDF) [issue-oriented, international cooperation], ECOSOC I, UNESCO, ILO, UNICEF, UNIDO. 1946 World Association of Women Entrepreneurs (WAWE) [identity oriented, professional, business], ILO. 1947 World Movement of Mothers (WMM) [identity- and issue-oriented, mothers and education] ECOSOC II, UNESCO, UNICEF, FAO. 1948 World Federation of Ukrainian Women's Organizations (WFUWO) [identity-oriented, Ukrainian nationals]. United Nations Women's Guild [service and identity-oriented, United Nations]. 1950 International Association of Women in Radio and Television (lAW RT) [identity-oriented, professional, media], ECOSOC II. Women's Corona Society [identity-oriented, Commonwealth]. 1952 International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF) [issue-oriented, family planning], ECOSOC I. 1953 International Association of Physical Education and Sport for Girls and Women (IAPSGW) [identity-oriented, physical education and sports]. 1958 International Women's Cricket Council (IWCC) [identity-oriented, sports]. Women's International Organizing, 1840-1990 167 1961 Women's International Cultural Federation (WICF) [issue-oriented, cultural cooperation]. 1963 International Union of Women Architects (IUWA) [identity-oriented, professional, architects]. 1964 International Association of Women and Home Page Journalists (IAWHPJ) [identity-oriented, professional, media], UNESCO. 1968 International Federation of Women's Travel Organizations (IFWTO) [identity-oriented, travel industry]. 1969 Virginia Gildersleeve International Fund for University Women (VGIFUW) [service-oriented, project funding]. 1970 All Nations Women's League [issue-oriented, culture, education]. 1971 International Association of Women Ministers (IAWM) [identity oriented, professional, religious]. Ecumenical Group of Women (KAIRE) [identity-oriented, religious]. 1972 International Wages for Housework Campaign (IWHC) [issue-oriented, wages for housework, network]. 1973 Women's International Tennis Association (WITA) [identity-oriented, professional, sports]. 1974 World Feminist Commission (WFC) [issue-oriented, international cooperation]. Isis International [issue-oriented, communications, network], Isis Women's International Cross Cultural Exchange (lsis-WICCE) [issl!e-oriented, information and direct exchange] 15-17 November, Frankfurt International Feminist Conference, attended by over 600 women, mainly from Western Europe. 1975 International League of Women Composers (ILWC) [identity-oriented, professional, music], Women's International Network (WIN) [issue-oriented, communications, network]. Women's International Professional Tennis Council (WIPTC) [identity oriented, professional, sports), 15-18 June, Seminar on Women in Development, Mexico City, attended by 95 women and men from 55 countries. 19 June to 2 July, Non-governmental Tribune, Mexico City, 6000 participants from more than 90 countries. 20-4 October, International Women's Congress for International Women's Year, Berlin Sponsored by Women's International Democratic Federation, with 2000 participants from 140 countries. 168 Appendix 1976 International Women's Tribune Centre (IWTC) [issue-oriented, communications, network] ECOSOC Roster. International Feminist Network (IFN) [issue-oriented, solidarity and support, network]. International Women's Writing Guild (IWWG) [identity-oriented, professional, writers]. 4-8 March, International Tribunal on Crimes against Women, Brussels, 2000 women from 40 countries attended. 2-6 June, Women and Development Conference, Wellesley College, Mass., Center for Research on Women, 500 people attended. 1977 First International Meeting on Women and Health, Rome. May and June, Paris and Amsterdam, two meetings on feminism and socialism - in May in Paris 3-5000 women attended. 1978 Women's Feature Service (WFS) [service-oriented, news media]. Equity Policy Centre [service-oriented, coordination of conferences]. International Women's Anthropology Conference (!WAC) [identity oriented, academic], ECOSOC Roster. Women's Global Network for Reproductive Rights (WGNRR) (initially called International Contraception, Abortion and Sterilisation Cam paign, ICASC) [issue-oriented, reproductive rights, network]. 1979 Women's World Banking (WWB) [service- and issue-oriented, banking and credit], ECOSOC II. CHANGE [issue-oriented, education, information exchange] ECOSOC II. Women's Network on Global Corporations [issue-oriented, global corporations]. 24-30 June, international meeting on 'Feminist Ideology and Structures in the First Half of the Decade for Women', Bangkok. 1980 International Resistance of Women to War (RIFG) [issue-oriented, peace]. Third World Movement Against Exploitation of Women (TW MAE W) [issue-oriented, exploitation against women, network], ECOSOC Roster. International Alliance [identity-oriented, professional, executives]. 20-5 April, International Feminist Workshop, Stony Point, New York. 14-24 July, Non-governmental Forum, Copenhagen, 8-10000 participants from 128 countries. 27-31 December, International Lesbian meeting, Amsterdam, 70 women from 16 countries Second International Meeting on Women and Health, Hannover. Women's International Organizing, 1840-1990 169 1981 6-8 June, Third International Meeting on Women and Health, Geneva, 500 women from over 35 countries attended. 8-13 October, World Congress of Women: Equality, National Independence, Peace, Prague, 1000 participants from 133 countries. 31 October-1 November, London, Workshop of the International Contraception, Abortion and Sterilisation Campaign (ICASC, which became the Women's Global Network for Reproductive Rights), 60 participants from 11 European countries, Latin America, Mauritius, India, Israel and South Africa attended. 28 December-1 January 1982, lntemationallnterdisciplinary Congress on Women, University of Haifa, Israel. 1982 World Women in the Environment (WorldWIDE) [issue-oriented, environment] UNEP. 16-19 April, Women's International Media Network Conference, Washington DC. July-August, Montreal, International Conference on Research and Teaching related to Women, 350 women from 71 countries attended. Dakar, Senegal, 40 women and some men from the North and South drew up the 'Dakar declaration on another development with women'. 1983 International Black Women's Congress (IBWC) [identity-oriented, women of African descent]. International Feminist Network Against Forced Prostitution and other Forms of Female Sexual Slavery [issue-oriented, exploitation of women, network]. International Council on Women's Health Issues [issue-oriented, women's health care]. Women's Exchange Programme International (WEP International) [service-oriented, organizational infrastructure development]. 6-15 April, Rotterdam, Global Feminist Workshop to organise Against Traffic in Women. June, International Women and New Technology Conference, Geneva, women from Hong Kong, Philippines, India and Malaysia, Japan, Europe, USA and Canada attended. 1984 Development Alternatives with Women for a New Era (DAWN) [issue oriented, third world women, network]. Feminist International Network of Resistance to Reproductive and Genetic Engineering (FINRRAGE) [initially called Feminist International Network on the New Reproductive Technologies, FINNRET; issue-oriented, reproductive and genetic engineering, network].