NIETZSCHE’ S PHILOSOPHICAL CONCEPT OF DIONYSUS AND APOLLO IN THE ART OF OSCAR WILDE A Dissertation submitted to The Faculty of Arts of the University of Düsseldorf In fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy In English Literature By Ali Hafudh Humaish Supervisor Prof. Roger Lüdeke February 2018 1 Table of Content TITLE PAGE 1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION I. Art and Fin de Globe - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 5 II. The Path Ahead: Inquiries and Hypotheses - - - -- - - - - - - - - - 21 CHAPTER TWO I. Nihilism and Nietzsche´s Life-Affirming through Art - - - - - - - 27 II. Dionysus and Apollo - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 41 III. Wilde, a Disciple of Nietzsche - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 53 CHAPTER THREE I. Integration of Art and Morality in The Happy Prince and the Domination of Apollo - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - 71 II. Superiority of Art to Nature in The Picture of Dorian Gray and the Domination of Dionysus - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - -- 91 III. Dionysian Dreamers versus Apollonian Realists in Salome - - 115 CHAPTER FOUR I. The Art of Painting by Words - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 141 II. Poems of Freedom and Passion - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 151 2 CHAPTER FIVE I. Wilde´s Religion: a Philosophical and Aesthetic Archetype - - - - 170 II. Mythological Aesthetics and the Triumph of Apollo in the "Sphinx" - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 183 III. Imitation and Dionysian Religion in The Prose Poems - - -- - - 211 CONCLUSION 227 BIBLIOGRAPHY 234 3 WE HAVE ART IN ORDER NOT TO PERISH OF THE TRUTH Friedrich Nietzsche 4 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION I- Art and Fin de Globe ‘Fin de Siècle’ murmured Lord Henry ‘Fin de Globe’ answered his hostess ‘I wish it were fin du globe’ said Dorian with a sigh .Life is a great disappointment.’ The Picture of Dorian Grey (1891) The decadence age has been given myriad epithets to describe it. Most of them are negative and pejorative.The word "decadence” itself refers to a state of fall or collapse .The age was called Fin de Siècle, fin du globe, age of transition, age of immorality, age of aestheticism, age of failure. The word Decadence stems from the Medieval Latin word DECADENS which means to fall away. However, all of these refer to the 1890s or the turn of the century. With England, to confine myself to English literature, at the height of its power, and industrialisation sweeping the nation and people still staggering under the shocks of new scientific beliefs while Darwinism was still shaking people´s faith and belief in their religion, the literature of the period came as a reflection of new emergent ideals challenging the time-honoured traditions. The poet and scholar A. E Housman (1859-1936) objected to being included in an Anthology of the Nineties replying that it is as inappropriate as including “Lot in a book of Sodomites”. The Nineties was in fact short for the decadence period. A period of perversity and degeneration in life and art as general consensus of critics 5 seems to affirm. Literature of the time was described as being morbid, unwholesome and perverse. It might be a coincidence but certainly of appropriate significance that the majority of those writers who are accused of being decadent tried to seize and enjoy the moment before their early death. Most of them died young. Oscar Wilde died at 44, Ernest Dowson at 33, Lionel Johnson at 35, and Aubrey Beardsley at 26. So they, in a sense, were themselves obsessed with the idea of the end of existence and the necessity to enjoy a sensual life to the full. Immortality for them seems to have been a far-fetched dream that they all struggled to desperately aspire to. Several factors went into the making of the age where the philosophy of beauty and pleasure gripped the nation as Duggan explains: The explosion of aesthetic philosophy in fin-de-siècle English society, as exemplified by Oscar Wilde, was not confined to merely art, however. Rather, the proponents of this philosophy extended it to life itself. Here, aestheticism advocated whatever behaviour was likely to maximize the beauty and happiness in one’s life, in the tradition of hedonism. To the aesthete, the ideal life mimics art; it is beautiful, but quite useless beyond its beauty, concerned only with the individual living it. Influences on others, if existent, are trivial at best (Duggan, 2009, p.61). Though some critics do not even recognise a period named Decadence, The social, economic, religious, scientific as well as pathological changes of the time were all paving the way for a new age in which the importance of time, newness and change are paramount. The Victorians had already shown that time is of great importance with the invention of the clock and the great advantage coupled with organising work hours. On the economic level, this period was hard hit by what was called the Great Depression or the long Depression as some had called it. It began in 1873 and ran till the 6 middle of the 1888 with a noticeable impact on the later decade. This depression started in the United States (though some attribute it to the failure of banks in Austria and Hungry) after the civil war and Britain was the worst hit country in Europe. As a direct consequence, Britain lost some of its industrial lead to other super powers and this economic decline continued well until 1896. The great Panic of 1873 and the financial crisis in the United States prompted by a decline in bank reserves that ensued impacted Europe and Britain in particular. Though the crisis is also attributable to some other factors within Europe like the German expansion, The Austro-Hungarian bank failures and some other factors at any rate, it resulted in bankruptcies, escalating unemployment, a halt in public works, and a major trade slump in Britain. The first marks of decline in Britain, however, are the rivalry it started to get from Germany and America. Germany imported some of the technology exported from Britain and excelled in improving on the new technology. The economic impact did not pass unnoticed as far as culture is concerned. Concepts like high and low culture began to appear at the turn of the 19th century. The economic decline of Britain, however, triggered off from another perspective a cultural debate over Britain as a colonising power. The British colonial expansion contributed to the enrichment of new emergent ideologies through interaction with the new and novel ideas. The Boer war 1899-1902 ushered in a new phase of weakness and decline in the British Empire. Towards the end of the century the word change was a key word that sums up the late Victorian age. The change which started on the economic level ended up covering all fields. The cultural life of Britain was beset by the term ‘new’ in all fields like psychology, sexology (Sexology developed as a science and same sex relations were spoken of for the first time) and eugenics. These new dramatic changes sum up the decadence period which is often called a reaction against Victorian optimism. Max Nordau spoke of “the encroaching dusk of nations, in which all suns and all stars are gradually waning and mankind with all its 7 institutions and creations is persisting in the middle of a dying world” (Ledger and Lockhurst, 2000, p. 13). The economic and ensuing social problems of the country like poverty and the massive London poor came to the front as a problem. Man’s intervention to improve on Darwinism was felt to be necessary and inevitable. Eugenics (the belief in the possibility of improving the qualities of human species) and rational control of man over mass population was inevitable as well. The new science was gradually replacing the old and traditional modes of thinking. Science begot photography-like naturalism which in turn brought to focus man’s wretched conditions and hence began the discourse of degeneration. As the imperial expansion during the period backfired, so anxiety over the consequences of this expansion fuelled a new discourse of decay, decline and degeneration. Darwinism meant in a sense that evolution under certain conditions may well entail devolution if these conditions are no longer at work. If the mission of the colonising powers was to civilise the savages in the underdeveloped countries, so these savages are liable to become more or less savage according as certain conditions are met with the implication that we may decline just as we may evolve and develop. The expansion of the British Empire and its claim of leading a civilising mission in the colonised countries whose aim was to take colonised countries out of savagery into civilisation was a commonplace idea. Historically speaking, the term degenerescence was not new towards the end of the century. The term is attributed to the French physician Benedict Morel (1809-1873) in 1857. This was actually accompanied by certain cultural circumstances. Victorian progress was met with some pessimism and fear of the end of their empire. The naturalist Edwin Lankester equated the imminent fall of the Western civilisation with the fall of the Greek empire. Edwin Lankester says: 8 As we may cite some of the Indians of Central America, the modern Egyptians, and even the heirs of the great oriental monarchies of pre-Christian times, while the hypothesis of universal degeneration has a very large share in the explanation of the condition of the most barbarous races such as the Fuegians, the Bushmen and even the Australians. They exhibit evidence of being descended from ancestors more cultivated than themselves” (Ledger and Luckhurst, 2000, p. 4). We do not seem to be have progressed in intellect with comparison to our ancient forefathers of the Greek and Roman empires. This lack of progress in intellect entails the indispensability of starting from scratch in case this modern civilisation collapsed. We are likely, Lankester affirms, “to degenerate into a contented life of material enjoyment as accompanied by ignorance and superstition” (Ledger and Luckhurst, 2000, p. 5). On a biological level, the development of a living creature was defined on the basis of having two aspects. One is elaboration of structure which means the progress and organic development of a living creature with a view to attaining perfection, on the one hand and regression or less adaptability to new living conditions (Degeneration) on the other. When safety and subsistence is easily achieved by a living creature we may speak of the fact that this living creature is on its way to degeneration. An active man may well become less active when he secures a fortune that guarantees him better living conditions. Degenerative certain insects may even lose some of its legs if they are no longer needed and used. As certain conditions favour progressive evolution so the same conditions, if eliminated, may lead to degenerative evolution. Such thoughts gripped the nation and not without implications. There are numerous examples that may prove that lower cultures and civilisation descended from higher forms of civilisation. The modern Egyptians, the Australians and some Indians of Central America are good examples. The white man in Europe might as well 9 degenerate if we assume that the human intellect has not developed since the ancient Greeks. Modern day wrong-doing and falsehood is a reason why our civilisation might well degenerate if certain conditions become available. We as humans are getting more and more addicted to pleasure and all our pleasure seeking senses are being sharpened at the expense of some other senses which may well be beset by atrophy. The late nineteenth century man was bombarded with ideas that confirm plausibility of negative evolution. But the cultural discourse of an imminent decline was not, however, confined to economy or biology; it went so far as to cover the linguistic field. It all started with a linguistic overhaul of the language philology. The new rules of the neo-grammarians treated language as an autonomous entity “language as a system blindly obeying impersonal phonological rules in isolation from any world of human values and experience” (Dowling, 2016, p. 7). This new philology brought about a cultural crisis. Linguistics of the time had then declared the language of the great masters as dead in comparison with the living speech. It is in German philology, however, that we first find a mention of decadence. Linda Dowling claims that since language is primarily spoken, so the Victorian ideal of literary language being the national pride of a nation was shaken by the new linguistic theories. This was principally the origin of British decadence. The literary language was seen as a petrified example in comparison with the dynamic spoken language. Accordingly, Walter Pater, for instance, who used a highly literary language, ushered in the decadence or the aesthetic discourse as he was supposed to have used a language that is beyond the reach of common people. Walter Pater is a major figure in Victorian England. He was an essayist, fiction writer and an art theorist who proposed a new theory of living a new mode of life in which beauty and strangeness are its important components. In 1873, he published his book Studies in The History of the Renaissance, a book which reflects on Italian art but he used as his springboard 10