Newāh Vijñāna Editorial Journal of Newar Studies ISSN 1536-8661 1131 Number-7 2010/11 Jwajalapā ! Since the last issue of Newāh Vijñāna, there have been some monumental changes in the Newāh commu- nity worldwide, especially in the political field of Nepal. Most notably, on Dec 26, 2009, after centuries of struggle, we became witnesses to one of the most important historical moment in Nepal’s history as Newāh people from all walks of life assembled at Dasharatha Rangashālā, the national stadium of Nepal, to declare Newāh Autonomous State (NAS) under the Federal Republic Nepal. This declaration is to be endorsed by the Constituent Assembly formed after general election that took place in May 2008. However, the autono- mous state still needs a national mandate by the Constituent Assembly for it to be written under the New Constitution of Nepal. The struggle for recognition of Nepal Sambat is no longer a matter of dispute among the elite group; all Newāh supporters are in favor of Nepal Sambat. After all, it is the original calendar of Nepal. Historically Publisher speaking, Nepal Sambat fell into scrutiny for being a ‘Newāh’ Calendar to allow continuity of imported Intl. Nepāl Bhāshā calendar, Bikram Sambat. For decades, this has allowed for a misleading celebration of Nepali New year Sewā Samiti in foreign land by non-Newāh group of Nepalese community. The slogan ‘Nepal Sambat Rastriya Sambat’ had always been a thorny subject during the Panchayat period. It is the fall of Panchayat, as well as the Shah Center for Nepalese rulers, which has paved a way for Nepal Sambat to finally be recognized. Language & Culture Portland, Oregon USA Speaking of recognition, Newāh people also awakened a new realization on the importance of their mother tongue in education. Newāh parents, who were born during the Panchayat period, were coerced to teach non-Newāh language due to job security. Consequently, this ill-advised attempt to secure a future proved to Editor be detrimental as their Newāh children simply forgot ethnic language. However, the new changes in the po- Dayā R Shākya litical field brought 100% passing on the SLC exam from schools where the medium of teaching was solely Newāh language. In 1997, Jagat Sunder Bwone Kuthi, which started as pre-primary school, was mentioned in the first issue of Newāh Vijñāna as a pilot project, where medium of teaching was other than Khas-Nepali Assistant Editor or English. In both 2009 and 2010, the school consecutively had 100% passing results with distinction and first division in government standard of education. Now, the school is in process of adding post-SLC, ‘plus Sudip R. Shākya two,’ levels to show that inclusion of mother tongue is the best way to educate children. Advisor In addition to the revitalization of Nepal Bhāshā, Newāh people also took to the streets to protest excessive domination of Khas tradition in major Newāh-populated regions even though sovereign power had already Prof. Todd Lewis been bestowed on the elected body as the ruler of the country under the true democracy that was achieved from the second jana andolan, the historical uprising of the 2006. These street protests and solidarity accom- Designer plished to help establish the Nepāl Bhāshā in Kathmandu’s workforce, to assist the non-Newāh employees in Kathmandu Municipality, and it resumed to accept application and query in Nepāl Bhāshā. Sudip Shākya Nepāl Bhāshā and its importance has always been a driving force for Newāh Vijñāna. But, this journal not www.digitalbabu.com only focuses on language, literature and culture, but also the heritage of Newāh people that may include all subjects relating to Newāh people including politics, history, economy, art, architecture etc. The focus of Mailing Address this issue is ‘Newāh Rajya,’ a proposed autonomous state under the Federal Republic Nepal. Our approach to reincarnate Nepal Mandala as a state is not an easy task and it does take an entire community to free the Newāh Vijñāna Newāh people from the dominant group. Newāh Vijñāna has and will always maintain its goal to achieve 1739 NE 47th Ave. and research study materials for new generation of Newāh people so that they too can live with dignity and Portland, OR 97213 gracefulness as NEWĀH, instead of merging identity as Nepali. This issue, in particular, contains findings of study on Itumbaha, which is one of the most important Baha traditions of Newāh Buddhist of ancient Nepal Mandala by both a foreign and a native scholar. In addition, this issue also contains a short description of Theravada Buddhism and Nepal Bhasa Literature as well as few unspoken historical facts from King Prithvi Narayan Shah’s period and contribution of Newāh people in building the Chandra Nursery in Sikkim. In Nepāl Bhāshā section, a short description on history of Nepāl Bhāshā poetry is reproduced here for docu- mentation, there is a complete concept paper on Newāh Rajya and there is also a combined view of Newāh leaders supporting the Newāh movement organizations. Their view is not leading to an ultimate liberation of Newāh people, but a spade-to-spade in connection with current situation. It is being believed and trusted to those leaders who will keep fighting to establish a free Identity of Newāh People. In Khas-Nepali section, two articles are included which solely focuses on Newāh Rajya and Prithvi Narayan Shah’s unspoken chronological facts. Moreover, this section also contains a widespread of Newāh literature Cover: in foreign land and Newāh culture in nutshell, were included beside all the regular informative findings. NEWAH STATE We hope you find these articles interesting for your reading pleasure. Our guest editors from the UK and FLAG & ANTHEM Australia will undertake the next two issues. Please contact them for all further submissions. Newāh Vijñāna would like to thank everyone for their continuing support. Subhāye! C ONTENTS Newāh Vijñāna • g]jfM lj¡ffg AD 2010-11 Number 7 BS 2067-68 NS 1131 ENGLISH Newah State Anthem............................................................................................................................. 01 Reason behind the Declaration of Newah Autonomous State in Nepal............... Daya Shakya.................. 02 Maintenance of Language and Literature: the Case of the Newārs in Nepal...... Bal Gopal Shrestha......... 04 The Chandra Nursery: Centenary (1910 - 2010) - A Tribute............................... Rajiva Shanker Shresta... 14 Foundation of Theravada Buddhism in Nepal................................................... Bhikshu Kondanya.......... 21 A Short Portrayal of Itumbāhā as a Monastic Institution................................... Alexander v. Rospatt....... 25 A Study on Itum Bahal..................................................................................... Ushnik Ratna Shakya...... 35 Hidden History of Nepal.................................................................................. Dr. H.G. Behr................... 38 Encoding Nepal Scripts.................................................................................... Dr. Carole Faucher........... 41 Bibliography of Thesis and Research Paper in Nepal Bhasa Submitted at TU..... Ijirose Shrestha............... 42 NEPAL BHĀSĀ SECTION Yj uHofMu' g]jfM /fHo <............................................................................ b/zf g]jfMld............... 46 g]kfnd08nof Dx, NxfM, t'lt TjfNxfgf Ogf laOu ' s'tM....................... lagf]b ;fo\ld -cfn_.. 47 g]jfM :jfoQ /fHoof cjwf/0ff–kq.......................................................... g]=:j=/f=d+ ;=;........... 50 k[YjLgf/fo0f zfx+ o]“o\ cfqmd0f ofo]w'+sfM............................................... xif{d'lg zfSo............... 58 ;lR5b“of g]kfnefiff sfJo –.................................................................... kml0fGb|/Tg jh|Frfo.{... 59 wDdfjtL u'?df + gfk 5emfM....................................................................... ;Dkfbs........................ 62 KHAS-NEPALI SECTION ;Gbe{ g]jfM /fHoM........................................................................................ bof zfSo.................... 65 k[YjLgf/fo0f zfxsf] aj{/tf...................................................................... zLn axfb'/ ah|frf{o.. 66 g]jfM ;+:s[lt M s]xL emns........................................................................ o1dfg klt ah|frf{o. 68 w":jf“ ;fodLM ljb]zdf g]jf/ ;flxTosf k|yd k|rf/s......................... s[i0f k|sfz >]i7......... 72 u0FtflGqs g]kfnsf] klxnf] pkxf/ g]kfn ;+jt\......................................................................... 74 MISCELLANEOUS............................................................................................................... 76 SUBSCRIBER'S DIRECTORY............................................................................... 85 ORDER FORM NEPAL SAMBAT CALENDAR 1131 Newah State Anthem Lyrics by: Durga Lal Shrestha • Music By: Tirtha Mali Translation: Daya Shakya and David Hargreaves Dhuna dane dhuna sanhyalã jhii We've already raised ourselves from deep sleep Phukka hey chhamha juidhuna We've already united as one Jhiigu lāgāe jhii swayam hey Ourselves, our own dominion Ja: juyā: dhuna luidhuna Already our light has risen Hyāungu bhumii asTamandala An eight-pointed mandala on a red background Hyāungu chā: dune thii nagu A star within a circle of red Jhiigu newāh dhwāen thwa hey kha This is our Newah flag Jyāna jhii sakasyān chhagu All of our lives are one Jātitaye swāyatta rājyã A nation of ethnic autonomy Lui kapã chwae jhilimilin Colors of the rainbow all across our land Rāstra jha:jha: dhāeka nhyāke We move onward adorning our country Jhiigu chatĩ jhiigu hĩ With our sweat and our blood w'g bg] w'g ;+Gxo emL k[\\mSs x] 5Dx h[\O{ w'g emLu ' nfufo\ emL :jod x] hM h'ofM w'g n'O w'g x\ofp+u' e[\ldO ci6d08n x\ofp+u' rfM b'g] yL gu' emLu' g]jfM Wj+fo\ Yj x] vM Hofg emL ;sl;of+ 5u' hftLtfo\ :jfot /fHo+ n'O sk+ Rjo\ lemln ldln+ /fi6| emM emM wfo]s Gx\ofs] emLu' rMlt+ emLu' lx+ . To Listen to Audio Version of the Anthem: http://www.nepalmandal.com/content/6184.html Newah State Anthem 1 Reason Behind the Declaration of Newah Autonomous State in Nepal Daya Shakya Oregon, U.S.A The struggle for democracy never ends, some countries they were not treated equally under any constitutions so have already achieved it and some have just begun to un- far written in courses of historical and political changes. derstand its meaning. In the case of Nepal, the democratic Their language and culture were given less attention for norm has already started to float in the minds of Nepalese development and promotion. Due to this unfair and un- people. It is still working under labs to figure out the result equal justice from the ruling group, the Newah people had of struggle by adopting the experimental phases based on to struggle for his or her own identity. This difference, the political mantra, ‘by the people, of the people and for exploitation and suppression gave birth to political unrest. the people.' It is still uncertain when the people of Nepal are going get the final and conducive result of Democracy Even under the current interim constitution, that was writ- even though the 240 years old one-man-ruling system was ten after the second jana andolan, the importance was abolished two and half years ago. given to only those elite groups. Due to such type of dis- satisfaction, many ethnic groups took look for justice by Under several phases of struggle, it is not worthy to men- taking it to the streets. Eventually, they failed reach an tion here that Nepal is not a mono-lingual, mono-cultur- agreement with the elite group controlled government of al country. It has many layers of multi-cultural identity Nepal. During the last two and half years, many efforts diversified under the roof of the world, from the snow- were made to secure a place for Newah people in the con- capped mountains to the hot and wet low lands. Collec- stitution that was being written. On one hand, the govern- tively, all people living in Nepal all are known as Nepal- ment’s spokesperson pacified the ethnic groups to imple- ese, which consists of numerous ethnic groups. But in the ment the agreement policy that was already signed but, on past, there has been many attempts to eradicate identities the other hand, the reality was different. The signed pact of those ethnic minorities from Nepalese history. Conse- was never put into practice. quently, for the past 240 years, this attempt forced all people of Nepal to live under the umbrella term NEPALI. So, the hope from the elite group’s government was This literally arose from the Gorkha hill in West Nepal fading away and the Newah people were determined to and, thus, Nepalese people actually inherited the term achieve the goal of securing an identity by any means. Gorkhali, even in Indian and British armies. As a result, all the Newah personnel who were involved in Newah awareness, as well as the Newah members of Until the year 2007, Nepalese people were made known existing major political parties, jointly declared to form as Nepali and they were enforced to learn the ruling lan- a struggle committee to achieve recognition for all sup- guage by provision of less important to ethnic languages. pressed groups. On the day of Dec 26, the day after One of them is the Newah language, a language that was Christmas was celebrated around the world, the declara- historically recognized as the official language of Nepal tion of Newah Autonomous State (NAS) took place from Mandala, which was then known as Nepal Bhasha, before the grassroots level by the original inhabitants (adivaasi) the unification of current and larger Nepal. Since then, of Nepal Mandala at Dasharath Ranga Shala stadium in Nepal Bhasa has been treated harshly as unimportant and Kathmandu. This was a first time, in modern history, that it has never gotten state privileges until recently. such a crowd of Newah people assembled in a venue to claim own land as an autonomous state under the Federal Keeping this in mind, Newah people have always felt that Democratic Republic of Nepal. 2 Newāh Vijñāna-7 Due to lack of comprehensive approach presented by the stadium took an oath to save their land by putting their ruling political parties, the Government in Power (GOP) or right hand across their chest and singing the national an- the Constituent Assembly, the Newah people themselves them of Newah State, which debuted on the very day. The were now able to declare NEWAH - LAND as under their chairman of Newah Dey Daboo, Mr. Narendra Tamrakar, own territorial jurisdiction. This NEWAH-LAND is built delivered the welcome speech. Mr. Malla K. Sunder, pa- upon the foundation that Newah people should have the tron of Newah Dey Daboo, announced the structural goals rights to choose rule of law to save Newah identity in the of Newah state and its features. He said that Newah state constitution that is going to be promulgated in near future. has a place for all supporters and that there will be no The Newah community worldwide thanks all the dedicat- further discrimination to any caste and creed under new ed Newah personnel. Without their cooperation and their state law. However, he also mentioned that priority will be enthusiastic approach, this historical event would not have given to Nepal Bhasa in every sector of state government taken place. Gratitude and praise must also be given to and in educational institutions to save the identity for the members of Newah Swaayat Shashan Mankaa Sargharsha future generation of Newah people. Samiti (NSSMSS), which compromises of 31 different castes based social organizations, Newah Dey Daboo (the One of the biggest highlights came when the organizing national organization of Newah people), Newah leaders of committee raised the new Newah State Flag as a symbol existing political parties NC, UML, UNCP (Maoist) and of unity. Moreover, each couple that represented the 31 the Nepaa Rastriya Party (NRP). This historical moment castes-based social groups in Nepal Mandal, freed pigeons for Newah people would not have been possible without and released balloons with the message, NEWAH RAJYA the collective approach of all social organizations, which JINDABAAD (long live Newah State). In the evening of has been working for Newah cause for many decades. that day, a dazzling light in Newah towns and cities across the nation marked December 26th, 2009, as a special day, Singing the national anthem of Nepal kicked off the gala a day when Newah Autonomous State (NAS) was finally for the declaration of Newah Autonomous State (NAS). declared. NEWAH RAJYA JINDABAAD! Subhaaye! In addition, each and every member of the audience in the Balloon Release at the Celebration Newah Supporters at Dasharath Ranga Shala Stadium Proposed Federal States of Nepal Showing Tiny Newah State, 2010 Shakya/Reason behind...Newah Autonomous State... 3 Maintenance of Language and Literature: the Case of the Newārs in Nepal Bal Gopal Shrestha University of Oxford, United Kingdom Introduction: special rights in the newly created ‘Rājya’ for good so that they can rule themselves, decide their own fate, and work to enhance their culture, religions, language and literature. Nepal, a multinational, multicultural, multilingual, and They want to free Nepal from the unjust rule of “one na- multi-religious Himalayan country in South Asia, is tion, one culture, one religion and one language” to let situated between two giant neighbours China and In- flourish, cultures, religions, languages and literatures of dia. It hosts more than 100 ‘nationalities’ or ‘ethnicities’ diverse nationalities of Nepal so that a truly a multination- (Janajāti) speaking various languages and dialects. The al, multicultural, multilingual, and multi-religious federal Newars, the original inhabitants of the current Kathman- democratic republic of Nepal could to established where du Valley are one among them. As a result of the 1767 all of them can live in peace and harmony with mutual Gurkhā conquest, Nepal underwent a repressive rule of respect. “one nation, one culture, one religion and one language” for more than two centuries which grossly undermined its multinational, multicultural, multilingual, and multi- The Newars religious reality. The ten years long Maoist people’s war ended after a successful people’s movement that they Scholars such as Dor Bahadur Bista assert that the Newar launched together with other parliamentarian parties in speakers lived in the Valley of Nepal from prehistoric 2006, which eventually abolished the 240 years old Shah times (1976:16). Many also believe that the Newars are regime, and declared Nepal a federal democratic republic the descendants of the Kirātas who ruled Nepal before by the elected Constituent Assembly in 2008. Though the the Licchavis in the Valley. However, the Kirātas left no country has been declared a federal democratic republic, documents to prove their rule in the valley, except a list discriminatory policies of the state against various ‘na- of names of their kings found in the oldest chronicle of tionalities’ (Janajāti) and languages of Nepal continued Nepal “The Gopālarājvamsāvali”1 and the nineteenth till date. century chronicles such as the Bhāsāvamsāvali. The in- habitants of eastern Nepal such as the Limbus and Rais The making of a new constitution is in process. While also claim descent of the Kiratas. Linguistically, Newār, people of major ethnic-nationalities are striving to estab- Limbu and Rai languages are classified as Tibeto-Burman lish a federal state of Nepal based on ethnic and linguis- languages. Newār shares some grammatical features with tic rights, major sections of the ruling Hill Bāhun Chetris Limbus and Rāis that justifies link with the Kirātas. elites in all political parties are trying to impede the pro- cess hoping to retain the same old policy of “one nation, The total population of the Newārs in Nepal was one culture, one religion and one language”. Therefore 1,245,232 according to the 2001 census. The census of Nepal, a country in transition, besides political instabil- Nepal shows that the different ethnic groups of Nepal do ity, is facing multiple problems, including Madhesi and no longer maintain their mother tongues. The census re- Janajāti unrests at present. ports are criticised however by many Nepalese and for- eign scholars for not presenting accurate data. For exam- The Newars, as the original inhabitants of the Kathmandu ple, the 1991 CBS data deducted almost half of the Newār valley, are in forefront to create their own state ‘Newāh speakers' number from Suntol VDC of Sankhu only to add Rājya’ or ‘Nepal Mandala’ within Nepal aiming to embed it to the number of the Khas-Nepali speakers (Shrestha 4 Newāh Vijñāna-7 1999a). Although Newārs live in every region of Nepal, in 1767. Ralph L. Turner asserts that the words Nevār, and beyond its boundaries in India, the United States Nevāl and Nepal all have developed from the word 'Ne- and elsewhere the majority are concentrated in the val- pal' or ‘Nevār’2. There are conflicting views about the ley of Kathmandu. Previously, the valley of Kathmandu origin of the word “Nepal.” K.P. Malla confirms that an was known by the name “Nepal”, and for many people inscription from 512 AD of Vasantadev of Tistung is the the word “Nepal” still continues to mean the Valley of first evidence that the word Nepal was used for the people Kathmandu. The word “Newar” is nowadays commonly of Nepal.3 The Lichhavis, who ruled Nepal from the sec- used to indicate the people living in the Kathmandu Val- ond to the ninth century AD, have left a corpus of inscrip- ley and those people who speak Newār (Nevār) or Newāri tions. Those inscriptions are all written in pure Sanskrit. or Nepalbhasa as their mother tongue elsewhere in Nepal, By analysing the place and river names written in those India and in other countries. The Newār is a Tibeto-Bur- inscriptions K.P. Malla concluded that, although the Lic- man language with a rich ancient and modern literature chavi rulers were inclined to use Sanskrit; the language going back to the fourteenth century AD. spoken by the people belonged to the Tibeto-Burman stock. He thinks it likely that the names of places found During the Malla reign, from the 12th until its downfall in the inscriptions are an archaic form of Nepalbhāsā.4 in the 18th century, the Kings did a great deal to promote Witzel (1980: 326) also saw the possibility of them being Newār language and literature, as well as in other lan- early form of Newār, however, he preferred to call them guages like Maithili, Avadhi, Bhojpuri, and Bengali. For "Kirāti." According to Gellner (1995: 5) “The Newāri fifteen centuries a Sanskrit literary tradition was cultivat- seems to have been spoken by the inhabitants of the Kath- ed in Kathmandu Valley. The Malla courts supported all mandu Valley as far back as the records go.” languages, classical and vernacular, without discrimina- tion. The extent of the literary tradition in other languages After the Lichhavis, the Thakuris ruled Nepal from the indicates the cosmopolitan nature of the Malla courts ninth to the twelfth centuries. Not much historical evi- (Malla (1982: 7). dence has been found from this period. So far, the earliest evidence of the use of the Nepalbhasa is found on a palm After the conquest of Nepal (1767), the Gorkha rulers re- leaf document of Patan Uku Bāhāl dated AD 1114.5 The placed the Newār language with the Gorkhāli language, earliest dated epigraph on stone in the Nepalbhāsā was which later to be renamed as Nepali. Khas-Nepali has found at Vajrayogini Sānkhu is dated 1172 AD. Later, dur- been the only official language of Nepal and has begun ing the Malla period (1200-1768), the Nepalbhasa flour- to be called Nepali since the 1930s only. During the au- ished, both in inscriptions and in manuscripts. Vast col- tocratic Rānā rule, which lasted a century (1846-1951), lections of classical Nepalbhasa literature are preserved all writing in the Newār language was forbidden, and this in Nepal in the National Archives, the Kesher library and provoked a group of Newār elites to defy the government the Asā Archives, whereas Western scholars carried away policy. The suppression, however, gave birth to a modern thousands of manuscripts from Nepal and deposited in literature written in the Newār language and the rise of a different libraries of the world.6 devoted literary intelligentsia. This period is also known as renaissance in the history of Newār literature. In the Malla period the name Nepal Bhāsā or ‘Lan- guage of Nepal’ was the common name for the Newār As soon as the Rānā regime ended in 1950, the govern- language. The first use of the word Newar was found in ment taught Newār language in schools and began broad- an inscription dated AD 1654 of King Pratap Malla at casting news on government sponsored Radio Nepal. Hanumandhokā.7 The Newar people to this day call their During the thirty years of Panchāyat regime (1960-1990), language Nepalbhāsā; in western philology it is now more the Newār language was again suppressed as the govern- commonly known by the name 'Nevāri' (Lienhard 1992: ment imposed a one-language policy. Newārs peacefully 3). Newar scholars from Dharmaditya Dharmacharya to protested, however, the notion of ethnic or linguistic na- Darasa Newah and many strongly disapprove to be called tionalism in Newār society emerged only toward the end 'Newāri' to the Newār language.8 of the 1970s. It was only in 1995 that they established the National Forum of the Newārs (Newāh De Dabuu) aiming Tradition of Writing in to assert ethnic national rights and rights to their language (Shrestha 1999b). the Nepalbhasa Newar is a rich and highly developed language with a vast History of the Newār language literature both in ancient and in modern times. There are five hundred Tibeto-Burman languages in the world but The word “Newār” itself is recent one, which began to be only five of them have ancient literature. Among them is popularised only after the Gorkhā conquest of the Valley Shrestha/Maintenance of Language and Literature... 5 the Newar language, which possesses ancient literature. 1890 people in general had no opportunity to educate In Nepal only the Newar language has the longest attested their children in Nepal. In the 1890s when the first school history of written tradition after the Maithili. Tradition of of Nepal, 'Durbar (Palace) School' was made accessible writing in Newar language began in the early Malla pe- to the public, the Newārs were among the first to make riod (1200-1482 AD). use of education. The Valley of Kathmandu was closed for people from other parts of Nepal. The Rānā saw the Evidences tell that the Newar language became the lan- Newārs as the inhabitants of the politically centralised guage of literature since the second half of the fourteenth state and as possible antagonists who might strangle them century. Nepalese scholars believe that when the Mus- any time. Intellectuals, social reformers, political activ- lim invaded the Valley of Nepal in 1349 AD they burnt ists or religious reformers such as Theravāda Buddhists' down large collections of manuscripts written in Newar or Arya Samāj supporters were all regarded as a threat to language together with the Hindu and Buddhist temples their autocratic rule. of the Valley. So far the oldest book found written in the Newar language is Haramekhala, a Tantric medical in- An India scholar, Acārya Narendradev mentions the struction manual dated 1374 AD. Originally the book was Prime Minister Jangabāhādur’s seizing of old texts in Prākrit language but later translated into Sanskrit and from monasteries. He further writes a British residen- then to Newār language. The second oldest book found tial doctor in Kathmandu, Wright, collected and pre- in the Newār language is Nāradasmriti dated 1380. It sented those books to Cambridge University, which were is also called Nyāya Vikasini, Manava Nyaya Śāstra or seized from the monastery, and thrown out on the street Nārada Smriti. Several versions of Amarkośa, Sanskrit- by Jangabāhādur.11 Janaklāl Vaidya has written that the Newār dictionary are to be found dated between 1381 prohibition of Nepalbhāsā from the court was already de- and 1386. The oldest known chronicle of Nepal, the clared in 1854 AD, but K.P. Malla remarks that the docu- Gopālarājavamsāvali, was compiled in Sanskrit and ment mentioned by Vaidya unfortunately cannot be traced. Nepalbhāsā in the 1380s (Vajracārya and Malla 1985). Malla confirms Cittadhar ‘Hridaya's statement about Newar writer and historian Chhatra Bahadur Kāyastha the 1905 ban.12 It is more likely that Jangabahadur may claims that the earliest dated poem in Newār language was have orally ordered such measures and no written docu- dated 925 AD and a poem written by the king Harśadev ments were kept. Especially with the rise of Rana Prime (1090-1097) was the second earliest poem in the Newar Minister Chandra Sumsher Newar language was banned language. There is no controversy about the three earli- from the court. The suppression of the Newar language est poems in classical Newār dated AD 1564, 1571 and and of Newar intellectuals intensified during his reign 1572 found in Patan and written by an unknown poet. (1901-1928). The language of the Newars 'Nepalbhasa" Scholars agree upon the fact that the earliest narrative text began to be called 'Nevāri' while the word 'Nepali' began goes back to 1374 AD and the earliest extant drama to to designate the ‘Parvatiya’ or 'Khasakurā' or ‘Gorkhāli’ AD 1673.9 language.13 The name 'Nepali' for the Khas language was first made popular outside Nepal. Only in the 1930s the Only during the two hundreds years of the later Malla pe- rulers of the country recognised it. In a similar manner, riod the courts recognised the Newār language for admin- the word 'Newāri' was designated to 'Nepalbhāsa' by istrative purposes (Shrestha 1990: 19). However, after the western scholars a long before it was adopted by anybody Gurkha conquest of Nepal in 1769, the Newār language in Nepal. In the later period of the Rana regime Newar had to undergo vicissitudes. At the beginning of the Shah intellectuals had to suffer profoundly under the hands of regime it could retain its prestige and importance. Shah the Rānās. Rana Prime-minister Juddha Samsher turned Kings such as Ranabahadur Shah and Rajendra Vikram much bitter towards the Newār language. "Anyone daring Shah still functioned as patrons of the Newar language to use Newār either for business or literary purposes was and themselves wrote literature in this language10, but found guilty of committing an illegal, even a revolution- gradually the Gorkhali or the Khas, the mother tongue ary act" (Lienhard 1992: 4). A considerable number of of the new rulers had to prevail in Nepal displacing the writers were given admonitions and fines, sent to prison Nepalbhasa. or forced into exile. The Rānā regime was afraid of the Newār Language and wanted to suppress it to stop any propaganda, which might be communicated through that Renaissance in the language against their autocratic rule. Interestingly, at the Newār Literature (1846-1950) same time the Nepalbhasā literary renaissance age (1899- 1940)14 began, which became a milestone in the history of The Newārs were to be excluded from political or deci- Newar literature. Pandit Nisthānanda Vajracārya (1858- sion-making posts as well as from military service from 1935), Siddhidās Amatya (1867-1930), Jagat Sundar Mal- the beginning of the Gorkhā conquest in 1769. Before la (1882-1952), and Yogvir Singh Kansakar (1886-1941) 6 Newāh Vijñāna-7 are the four most eminent literary figures of the Nepalb- political activists: Gangalal Shrestha, Dharmabhakta hasa renaissance period. Mathema and Dasharath Chand. They were all members of the People’s Council (Praja Parisad), which was an In 1909, Nisthānanda, the eldest among them was the anti-Rana political organisation. However, Sukraraj him- first to publish a Nepalbhāsā book, entitled Ekavimsati self had no connection with the Praja Parisad and was Prajñāpāramitā, a Buddhist text with Sanskrit ślokas. In punished because of his association with the Arya Samaj 1914, he printed another book, Lalitavistara, which deals and his social reform activities (Rose and Joshi 1966: 55). with Buddha's life, many other Buddhist religious stories, Interestingly enough the four martyrs except Dasharath and the Svayambhupurān, a mythical story about the cre- Chand were all the Newars. ation of the Nepal Valley. Though these works were based on religious stories, he lent his own originality to them. In 1912, Jagat Sundar Malla (1882-1952), who advocated He brought printing equipment from Calcutta and carried education in the mother tongue, opened a school in Nepal- out all the printing work himself, including the laborious bhasa in Bhaktapur. He wrote English-Nepalbhasa and job of composition. Later it became difficult for him to Nepalbhasa-English dictionaries, as well as textbooks, print his books because the government imposed censor- both in Nepalbhasa and in Khas-Nepali. He was arrested, ship on all publications. Virtually all Nepalbhasa publica- tortured and threatened with imprisonment if he did not tions were banned. So Nisthananda had to print and dis- stop his activities. He was the first to advocate education tribute his books secretly.15 His major contribution was to in the mother tongue. He had to pretend being a mad man publish materials for the first time in the spoken language to continue his work.18 of the Newar society using the Devanāgari script. Newār scholars had used old scripts and old language in writ- Similarly, Yogvir Singh Kansakar (1886-1941), the ing and copying thousands of manuscripts without tak- youngest among the four literary figures suffered at the ing changes in their spoken language into account. The hands of the Ranas. He was arrested on several occasions, tradition of copying manuscripts by hand in Nepal scripts fined and tortured. His cloth shop became a gathering (Bhujimol, Pracalit or Ranjanā scripts) continued until place for Nepalbhasa as well as Khas-Nepali writers of the beginning of last century.16 those days. Khas-Nepali poets such as Lekhnath Paudyal, Sambhuprasad Dhungel, Chakrapani Chalise, Laksmip- The most prolific writer of Nepalbhāsā literature during rasad Devakota used to gather in his shop. All of them the renaissance period was Siddhidas Amātya. He wrote later became outstanding literary figures in Khas-Nepali nearly fifty books including a version of the epic Rama- literature.19 When the government found it out, their writ- yana. His early writings deal mainly with religious and ings were seized, and they were severely warned not to moral philosophy, and later he wrote many poems, which hold such meetings. In 1924, when Yogvir Singh pub- reflect his ideas on social reforms. He advocated equal lished one of his religious poems, he and his publisher rights for women including access to education. He wrote both were fined. In 1929, Yogvir and his friends sought against caste discrimination, which was then supported by permission to open a public library. All those who signed law. These were in fact revolutionary writings for his time. this petition were fined heavily. He used to visit the gatherings of Arya Samaj, a Hindu reform movement based on Vedanta philosophy, whose The Rana regime was supported by the British colonial members were active in social reform programmes. In power, but with increasing protests against their occu- Nepal Madhavraj Joshi established it in 1920, while in In- pation of India, the British themselves were losing the dia Svami Dayananda Saraswati established it in 1875.17 ground. The increasing nationalist movement in India Siddhidas encouraged young people to write in Nepalb- terrified the Ranas, as it was encouraging the educated hasa. An active young man of Arya Samāj, Jñanbāhādur youngsters of Nepal to rebel against their rule. The sup- Newā, writes that he would never have become a writer pression of the Nepalbhasa writers, the majority popula- in Nepalbhasa if Siddhidas had not inspired him in those tion in the centre of power, was one expression of this meetings (Newā 1967: 142-3). Many young students who fear. Therefore, the Rana Prime Minister, Juddha Sham- were inspired by Siddhidas later became very famous sher, went further in the effort to suppress the Nepalbhāsā. writers of Nepal. In 1933 he called a meeting of all known Newar writers and pressed them to stop writing. The Rana government hanged Sukraraj Shastri, one of the avowed adherents of the Arya Samāj in 1941. He was the The brave or 'Bir' history of Khas-Nepali literature be- author of the first Newar grammar, Nepalbhāsā Vyākarana gan in India with the publication of the weekly Gorkhali (1928), and also wrote textbooks in Nepalbhāsā for chil- (1915-16) from Banaras by Suryabikram Gyawāli and dren Nepalbhāsā Varnamālā, Nepalbhasa Reader 1 and 2 Chandrikā from Kurseong by Pārasmani Pradhan, which (1933). Sukraraj was executed together with three other postulated the nationalistic image of modern Nepal.20 Shrestha/Maintenance of Language and Literature... 7