Numbe . AD 2007/08 NS 1128 Newih Viiiina Editorial The Journal of Newar Studie~ ISSN153(r-8661 1128Numbcr-62007/01', Inarelatively shorttime span, Nepal has gone through various phasesofchange, especially in political scenario. From our previous issue of "Jewah Vijnana till now, we witnessed the secondjanaandolanuprisingandafterwards theNepalese people got a rare opportunity to choose their own go\·ernment. Even though the final versionofconstitutionhasnot beenfinalized, theNepalesepeoplesucceeded in bringingthe interimconstitutionthatguaranteedtherighttopreserve, promote, Publisher and develop their own language and cultural heritage. Now. Nepal is no longer IntI. Nepal Bhasha Sewa Samiti recognized as a monolingual country but the current constitution recognizes all Center For Nepalese languages of 1\epal as National languages. However, the Kha..l language is still mentionedas the languageofofficial use and 238 years ofShah dynasty was put language &Culture onholduntil theconstitutionalassemblyelectionisheld. DuringtheShahdynasty, Portland, Oregon USA especiallyRanaandPanchavatperiod, Newars haveexperiencedvariouskindsof suppressivehassleincludingeducation, communicationand public services. Editor Furthermore,thepastgovernmenthasalsodevaluedtheimportanceofNepalSam Daya RShakya bat. Forthe last28years. the Newar peoplehave struggledfor recognition ofNe paJ SambatasthenationalcalendarofNepal. Itwasnot until secondjanaandolan that Honorable Prime ~linisterKoirala assured thatNepal Sambat as its national Assistant Editorc; calendarcannot be ignored. Since then, all government media started using it as the original calendar of Nepal. However, the struggle has not ended because the Sudip R. Shakya government regulation is still running under foreign-born calendar, the Bikram Subin Shakya Sambat. The l\Jepalese communities around the globe are still celebrating the Bi kram Sambat as the official !'\epalese l\JewYear and usc ofBikram Sambat as a Nepali calendarisstill prevalent but webelievethat itsusewill soonend. Advisor Prof.Todd lewis NotonlyNepalSambatbutalsotheconsiderationofreestablishingNepalJJandala as a state, has also surfaced. "Jepal !vlandala is not a new word but it has come down to"Jepalesepeoplefrom theancient time.Accordingtorecentlyestablished Designer Nepal tvlandalaForumC\MF), the 12adjacentdistrictsofcurrentKathmanduVal Sudip Shakya ley used to beknown as boundaryofancientNepal;Halldala. Weencountersuch evidences on existenceofNepalMandala inachant done in Sanskrit verses bya www.digitalbabu.com \'ewarBuddhistpriest.Thischantis used toresume the ritual offeredtoanydeity and to recognize the host person by honoring the cosmic details and it is still in Moiling Addres~ practice. Dueto numerous undocumented historical evidences, historiansstruggle togainfull supporttorecognizetheactual boundaryofNepalMandala. Currently, Newah Vijnana Nepal Valley consistsofyen (Kantipur), vala (Lalitpur), andkhwapa (Bhaktapur) 1719 NE 47thAve. but i\e\I'ar settlements such as Dolakha, Dhuhkhel. Newakot, Chillall8' Tistlll/8 and Palung regions are ignored. We believe that these regions were within the Portland, OR 97213 boundariesofancientNepalMalldala and it shall not beoverlooked. Focusing our attention to current issue of Newah Vijnana, we have included an article dealing with Nepal Sambat and Buddhist chant for fUrlher understanding of this matter. In addition, we have also included articles dealing ,vith Newars in Sikkim, \'ewarlinguistics, the i\ewartradition ofKumari and many others as supplementarymaterial tobringawarenessofcurrentissueson Ncwars. Werecog nizethat the struggle forthe"Jewah identity, both academicallyand personaJly, is still in itsinfancy but we can say that the progressis gainingremarkablestrength. \\"e hope that articles in Newah Vijiiana provide an understandingof this i\ewah Cover: struggle. Weare grateful for your continuous support and we look forward to in Source: Nepal ]'vlandalaForum, cludemorearticlesin future issues. Subhave 'thankyou'. ShankhadharSakhw, (http:'ishankhadharsakhwa.org) Newoh Vijfiona -.:rcn-: ~ AD 2007-08 Number 6 BS 2064-65 NS 1128 ENGLISH RitualandIdentityinDiaspora:TheNeworsinSikkim BalGopalShrestha 01 BuddhistHymnsandtheRenaissonceofTheravodaBuddhisminNepal PhraSugandha(AnilSakya) 14 NewarClassifiers:ASummaryoftheliterature Gwendolyn Hyslop 28 TabooWordsandExpressionsinNeworlanguage TejR.Konsakor 42 KumariinNewarCulture Dr.ChundaBajrocharya 47 NewahSolidarityCampaign MahesworShrestha 54 ViewpointOnNepalSambot RoshonShrestha 56 NepalbhosaOnlineFaundedforNewahlanguogeandPeople 58 BookReview: Newor(NepolBhosho) 60 CaturmosaCelebrationofDeoth 62 IntroducingonUnusualBook'UpadeshSangroha'inNepalBhosha 64 MiscelleneousMaterials 66 NEPALI(KHAS BHASHA) SECTION ~ ;;rr;rr ~ f~ """, 74 ~~:~""" 76 ~'lm!Tll'liT 19<'[: ~ ~ '-f;T~ 80 ;tn:~ 'liRi'lilR1'l 82 ifll1 m~ 83 NEPAL BHASHA SECTION ~~!l-1T ~ <no,~ ;{1:n<'lmliTm f~~ - f~: <f ~ ST¥1~ 84 ~T ;tn:ff/:.!.~P1~i<'f ~ ST~s:.tll5 93 <mt <it<'! 0m ;tn: <'!Top ~ ,!+n1im11 ~ 95 wtft'lill:!T ;tn: lffif ll~~~ 98 *r.>m!.~ llT11T/:r ;:q:~: ~m<m 99 ~~<f;tn:~ ;ml1mf~ 101 ;tn: wfl ;tn: ~ ~ fuq;f; iJ:!T!R 103 ~ ~"!.009f1i~~ ~: lfloh;o;;",i'1~ 105 ~:~~~<fT, 107 ~,l1f1{l:!T ~'lm!T ~ 110 ~lflT III (onference,Seminar,Symposium,Announcementsand Reports Members&Subscribers' Directory 117 Orderform Ritual and Identity in the Diaspora: The Nevvars • Sikkirn In Bal Gapal Shrestha Leiden University Introduction when Newars in the homeland are facing various prob lems including threats to their language and culture be cause of state negligence and globalisation, the Newars The Newars are the original inhabitants of the Kathman of Sikkim are actively preserving their cultural heritage du Valleyin Nepal. The \vord Newaris derived from the and language. In 1998, the State Government of Sik nameofthecountryNepalitself. Despitethe 1769Ciorkha kim introduced several laws and sanctioned state budoet conquestofthe Nepal Valleyand theirsubjugation by the c~l­ lines tofacilitate the promotionofthe languages and state, the Newars managed to maintain theirdistinct arts, tures ofthe Newars and othergroups (PradhanandJosee crafts, culture and traditions. Their culture has remained 1998). The school curriculum now includes the Newar highly influential throughout the history ofNepal (Toffin language, and language interpreters are employed in the 1984 and 1993; Levy 1992; Gellner 1996) The Newars StateLegislaturetotranslate speechesdeliveredin Ne\var are also considered to be a skilled and successful tradino b into other languages. In 2003, the State Government of community, and their involvement in trans-Himalayan Sikkim also recognised the Newars as an Other Back trade was alreadv well established many centuries aoo succe~ded Sikkil~ ward Class (OBC), for whom a percentage ofjobs and Theyhave inmaintainingthisimagein higherstudies are nmv reserved. Itis notable that in their also (Subba 1989: 134;Sinha 1981: 192).Asan educated homeland, Nepal, Newars and other ethnic groups have community, the Newars also occupy many important ad sofarachieved verylittlerecognitionoftheirculturaland ministrative postsin both Nepal and Sikkim. linguistic rights (Kraemer 1996; Gellner 1997; Shrestha 1999). Against this background the Nepalese minorities' The Newars ofNepal have been widelystudied (e.g. Ne achievements in Sikkim aresignificant. pali 1965;Toffin 1984, 1993; Levy 1992; Gellner 1996; Shrestha 2002). Ample literature exists on the Nepali di From January to 'vlarch 2004, I travelled to and resided aspora both in India and Bhutan (Subba & Datta 1991· stat~ in Sikkim and Kalimpong to conductanthropological re Timsina 1992;Hutt 1994,1997)and on Sikkim as a searchon theNewarsofIndia. Duringmvstavin Sikkim (Temple 1977;Nakane 1979;Jhaand !vlishra1984;Bha inf;rm~ti01~ \·ariou~ I was able to gather a wealth of on sin 1989; Subba and Datta 1991; Dhamala 1991; Lama aspects ofthe Newardiaspora community resident in the 2001 and Sharma and Sharma 1997). However, no re state. !vlore specifically, this fieldwork gave me a gocxl search has yet been carried out on the Newar diaspora opportunity to meet members of the community who in Sikkim. This is partly due to the fact that Sikkim re were active in revi\·ing their language, culture and ritu mained largely closed to outsiders even after it merged als. I was permitted to observe their religious and ritual withIndiain 1975.In fact, little researchhasbeencar;ied activities and toexperience how the diaspora Newars are out on the Newar diaspora in general and the few stud determined toreviveandpreservetheirheritage. !\lyfind ies which exist refer to the Newardiaspora inside Nepal ings arepresented in this paper. (Lewis & Sakya 1988) Historical Background Although the NewarsofSikkim arenumericallyveryfew they have played an important role in ethnic p:)litic:s and are active in trying to promote their language, culture, Although the question of early migration is still to be rituals, traditions and religions across Sikkim. At a time addressed by historians, it is belie\ed among Newars of Shrestha/ Ritual and Identity...Newars in Sikkim Darjeelingand Sikkim thatsomeoftheirancestors began on toworkinanumberofothercoppermineslater. Some migrating tothe region soonaftertheGorkhaconquestof Newars of Sikkim have suggested that the then king in Nepal in 1769. Tanka Subbawrites: 'a few family histo vited Laksmidas to Sikkim to act as the collectorofland ries of the Newars of Sikkim reveal that their ancestors revenues,as Laksmidashadbecomefamous inDarjeeling migrated to Sikkim at the timeofconsolidation ofNepal as asuccessful businessman. bytheGorkhaKingPrithiviNarayanShah' (1989: 1).This suggestionremains problematicbecause the Gorkhas had After the 1861 treaty was signed between British gov not entered the south-western regions of Sikkim until the emment and Sikkimese authorities, the British began to firstGorkha-Sikkim warof1788-1789.Theywerefurther encourage Nepalese settlers in Sikkim2 Some minis made to e\'acuate following the Anglo-GorkhaTreaty of ters, Lamas and Kazis, including Chebu Dewan as well Sugauli (1815). as Maharaja Sidkeong Namgyal and his sister, were op posed to Nepalese settlers in Sikkim. However, Pranab \dany have suggested that with the arrival of the legend KumarJha writes, in 1867, during the reign of~vlaharaja ary Laksmidas Pradhan (Kas~iu), a Newar from Bhak Sidkeong Namgyal the Sikkimese authorities accorded a tapur, in Sikkim,many other Newars migrated there also. fonnal lease grant to Laksmidas Pradhan. In an appeal There are a number of stories in circulation about how to the Govemment of Bengal to protect his land rights and when Laksmidasleft Nepal. \Vhile some suggest that and possessions in Sikkim, Laksmidas had received the Laksmidm; escapedfrom the Nepal \'Cilley to save his life lease from the LamaShahibofPhodongandthe Rajah of rightaftertheKotmassacreof1846,others believethathe Sikkim3 Lal Bahadur Basnet also mentions the formal left Nepal longbeforethis incident. AccordingtoBhman granting ofa lease in 1867to twoNewar brothers (1974: Prasad Pradhan, Laksmidas and his family had already 44). Daya Prasad Pradhan has published a family note moved from Bhaktapurto Kathmandu and wereengaged outlining the partition of the lands received in 1867 by in business there when he escaped from Nepal (Pradhan Laksmidas and his son Laksmi narayan Pradhan, Chan 1993: 4-5), but Cakraraj Timila believes that Laksmi dravir Pradhan and his son Mal1eshworPradhan,Kancha das and his family were living in the Inaycho quarter of Chandravir Pradhan and his son Laksminarayan Prad Bhaktapur at the time of his departure1 Both Cakrar~i han, Lambodar Pradhan and his son Laksmidas Pradhan and Bhuvan Prasad providevividaccountsofLaksmidas' (1997: 37, Appendix Ka). Despite this documentation, I tribulations after he left home and before he ended up in could not trace any formal written deeds regarding the Sikkim. AccordingtoCakraraj, Laksmidas first beganhis 1867landleaseto Laksmidas. trade in Darjeeling by selling gundruk, a form of dried and fermented vegetable. Bhuvan Prasad Pradhan (1993: The lease of lands to Laksmidas \"as continued in lat 9) writes that the location where Laksmidas used to sell ter years by Khansa Dewan and Phodong Lama, both of gundrukis still known as Gundri Bazaartothis day. Only whom \vere considered to be pro-immigration leaders. A later did Laksmidas succeed in establishing himself as a deed dated 1874states that Phodong Lama and Khangsa successful businessmanin Darjeeling. Dewan leased lands to Laksmidas, Chandravir, Jitman andLambodarinexchangeforpaymentsofRs. 500tothe On 1February, 1835, the East India Company took over RajahandRs. 700toLamaandKhangsaDewan.Thearea Darjeeling, ending Sikkim's control ofthe area. While in ofland mentionedin the deed wasas follows: 1839Darjeelingwas home toonly 100people, within ten years its population had reached 10,000. In the follow Boundary of land on the North of East from Rooe ingthirtyyears,Darjeelingsawarapid populationgrowth Naddi to its confluence to the Tista River, on the with the continuinginflux ofNepalese migrants. In 1901, East Southall along theTistari\"Cr,on the Southand the Newar population of Darjeeling was 5,880 ofa total West all along the BurraRungit up to its suspension popUlation of 249,117 (O'l\lalley 1907 43) The Brit BridgeovertheRungitriver,onthe North-Westfrom ish go\ernment also made Laksmidas the first Municipal the Rungit suspension Bridge along the old road up CommissionerofDarjeeling. toPukkavillage along the GovernmentRoad toKo olow Ektompani,from the Jhora ofKoolow Ektorp DayaPrasadPradhanwritesthatLaksmidas<:mdhis broth pani up to the l\lanfur river, on the East from the erChandravirarrived in Sumbukaround 1850(1997: 2). North of l\lanfur all along the l\lanfur Jhora up to Similarly, PranabKumarJha states: 'Laksmidas Pradhan its source4 with his uncle Keshav Narayan came to Darjeeling in 1853 from Nepal and probablynoother Newarhadcome Thedeedalsoauthorised the Newarsettlers toinvestigate to Darjeeling before them' (1985: 130). I-Ie further sug andfinecriminal actsaccordingtoNepaleselegalcustom, gests that they settled in Sikkim in 1867in orderto work with the exception of murdercases. The Newarmigrants atthe coppermineinTukkhani in South Sikkim andwent in Sikkim were also responsible for introducing a range 2 Newoh Vi;fiona-6 of new technologies and crops in the agricultural sector theBritish authorities in India to begin minting Sikkim's in Sikkim. O\vn coins. On4 June 1881, the Bengal Government re plied granting the Sikkimese authority to mint their own Laksmidas invited his brother, Kancha Chandravir Prad currency(Sharmaand Sharma 1997: 45-47). Subsequent han (Kasaju), from Nepal to assist him as his own re ly, on the 3rd day ofthe 10th month of the Water-Sheep sponsibilities increa'ied. Thereare a numberof stories in yearintheTibetancalendar,thePalacein Sikkimwroteto circulation about this Chandravir. According to Bhman Laksmidas grantinghim permission to start minting. The Prasad Pradhan. Chandravir was a wrestler and to this relevant portion of the text translated from the original day, peoplein Sikkim tell ofhow, \vith thisgreatphysical Tibetanis provided below: strength, he overpowered individuals \vho \vent against the rules, denied paying revenues or even attacked Nep Be it known to all the A10nks and laymen residing alesesettlers. within the Kingdom in general and those ledby the Newar trader Lakshmidar in particular that in ac As the head of Nepalese settlers in Sikkim, Laksmidas cordance with their request made in the petition beganinvitinghundredsofNepalistoSikkimtolookafter submittedby the latter requestingJar permission to the lands under his control, including i\!agars from the mintcoins(doli) wehadwritten to LordEden Saheb hillsand Newars from Bhaktapurofavarietyofdifferent through the Political Officer and obtained his con castes. In this manner, a large number of Newars were currence. Inpursuancethereoforderhasbeenissued migrating to and settling in Sikkim by the beginning of to Lakshmida1; the Nev.'ar Trader, and others com the 1870s5 Quoting a passage from the History (1Sik municatinggrantojpermission tomintcoins8 kim, Chie Nakane confirms that Sikkim saw an influx of NepaleseGorkhalis from 1871 (1966: 251). In 1883, having been given the contract to mint for five years, Laksmidas introduced the first Sikkimese coins In the 1870s, mining copper was added to the responsi intothe market9 The mintdidnot last long: it wasended bilities held by Laksmidas. The Sikkimese court was di in 1887. vided on the issue of Nepalese migration. On account of these divisions, .fha writes, trouble and riots sometimes There are also a number of stories about Chandravir broke out between Laksmidas Pradhan, the head of the Pradhan (Maske), another Newar in Sikkim, who is also Nepalesecommunity,and LassoKazi, the Sikkim Vakeel believed to be one ofthe earliest Newars to settle in the in 1872 (1985: 56). Adocument dated simply as 3rdday kingdom. AccordingtoDayaPrasadPradhan,Chandravir ofthe3rdmonthoftheTibetan yearIron Dragon (1880'7) Pradhan came from Nepal to Darjeeling with his father underthe kingThutob Namgyal, describes a riot in Rhe at the age of five in 1830, and later mewed to Sikkim for nock between pro- and anti-Nepalese groups. The same business in 184510 He cooperated with Laksmidas in document aIso mentions the fines slapped on those who various contracts (thekedarn and they also collaborated disobeyed the Newar leader given authority to collect in mining copper and minting coins for the Sikkimese taxes and govern.6 government The title of taksarr 'minter' was bestowed by the Sikkimese government on Laksmidas, Chandravir The exact date of the birth and death of Laksmidas re Kasaju, ChandravirMaske,JitmansingPradhan,i\farghoj mains unclear. His son Lambodar owned the largest Gurung and Pratapsing Chetri for their contributions in landed property in Sikkim and the British honoured him mintingcoins for thestate. with the title Rai Saheb for his service and loyalty to the colonial authorities. Quotingfamily papers,Jhaoffersthe British officers found Laksmidas, Chandravir and their following coppermines as ones in which Laksmidas and families to be extremely reliable partners. There are a hisfamilyworkedin:TukKhani nearTurukin SouthSik numberoftestimonials written byBritish governmentof kim, Rinchi Khani in Rinchinpongin vVest Sikkim, Bho ficers to Laksmidas and Chandravir dated between 1875 tang Khani ncar Rangpo Bazar in East Sikkim, Pachey and 1895 Onesuchtestimonydated31 May, 1875,states Khani nearRhenock in East Sikkim and RathokKhani in thatthe LieutenantGovernorofBengal was satisfIedwith Nanlthangin South Sikkim (1985 130) Chandrm'ir's performanceat the coppermines ofKatong Ghat in Sikkim. A similar testimony dated June 1895 In thepast,traders in Sikkim had practicedthe bartersys praises Laksmidas for his contributions in road construc tem. TheBritishauthoritieslatergrantedthem permission tion in Sikkim,ll to use Nepalese currency in Sikkim as some Nepalese traders requested for it to be permitted in 1849 to case Laksmidas wasalsoengagedinlendingmoneyto govern their trade? In 1881, following a request from Nepalese ment ofticers in Sikkim, A handwritten document dated traders,thekingofSikkim formally soughtapproval from 1882 presen'ed by \1rs. Kalpana Pradhan of Tadong Shrestha/ Ritual and Identity...Newars in Sikkim 3 tells that a person namedYamthangKaji, a high-ranking Se\"eral of the descendants of Laksmidas, Chandra\"ir Sikkimese government officer, borrowed money from and Chandravir Maske also built temples, health centres Laksmidas and did not pay him interest nor return the and schools in different parts of Sikkim. Nowadays, the money he had borrowed. In a formal letter, Laksmidas descendants of Laksmidas, his brother Chandravir and requested the then king of Sikkim to take the necessary Chandra\"irMaske, who can be found across Sikkim, are steps to arrange for the loan to be paid, including the ac still consideredto bequitesociallywell-to-do. cruedinterest. Inthecourseofmyresearch,itbecameclearthattheNep Laksmidasandhisfamily O\vnedmanyestatesin Sikkim. alese migration to Sikkim continued through the twenti Jha provides the following list oftheir holdings in 1913: eth century. An unpublished family genealogy which Kitam,Chidam,~amthang,SingtamandChakungowned I recei\ed from Dhruba Pradhan Bhansari tells that his by Rai Saheb Lambodar Pradhan; Pakyong, Rungpo, forefathers moved to Sikkim from Boya Bikhumca in Pedang, Rigoo, Pathing and Temi owned by Rai Saheb eastern Nepal in 1870. In a brief unpublished memoir, LaksminarayanPradhan;NeyandBroom ownedby Suri Chakraraj Timila, who has now returned to Nepal and man Pradhan; Pachey Khani and Taza owned by Dalba li\"es in Bhaktapur, writes how his grandfather,fatherand hadur Pradhan; Rhenock mvned by Ratnabahadur Prad uncle left Bhaktapur to set up grocery shops in the Tista han and~larmingowned by SherbahadurPradhan (1985: area in 1917. In 1918, his father and uncle married the 132). daughters of Sikkimese Newars, and then settled down there. For some people itis still aliving memory. Forin Many of the descendants of Laksmidas, Chandravir stance, the 63-year old \1r, Maniklal Pradhan ofTashid Kasaju and Chandravir Maske received the prestigious ing told me that he came to Sikkim with his father when title of Rai Saheb from the British administration. They he was only five years old. For a period, he remembers were also renowned as landlords (zamindar! or con tra\"elling back and forth to Nepal to his ancestral home tractors (thekedar!. One among them was Rai Saheb inBanepa. Others,however,donotrememberwhen their Balkrishna, popularly known by the name 'Baburam', ancestors mo\"ed to Sikkim and from which part of Ne and the grandson of Laksmidas. He built the famous pal they came. Many ha\"e just a \"ague sense of \vhich baunnadhoka darbar 'thepalacewith fifty-two doors' in part of Nepal their forefathers inhabited before coming l"amthang. The then king of Sikkim found this construc toSikkim,and they ha\"e ne\"erreturned totheirancestral tion embarrassingly ostentatious, as it \vas only fitting homelandin"epal. for kings ofl"epal to make palaces with fifty-two doors. Consequently,Baburam wasfinedarupee,alargeamount TheNewarsofSikkimappearedengagednotonlyastrad for the time. Baburam, however, being a wealthy land ers and landlords but also as officials in the Sikkimese lord, chose to rather pay one thousand rupees and close government, ser\"ing at the Palace and the royal court in one of the doors of his palace (Pradhan 1998: 55). Ba Gangtok since 1910. Some Newars becanle magistrates buram's historic mansion still stands in Namthang, where oftowns and \"illages, with the authority to adjudicate in his grandson Dharma Pratap Kas~iuand his family nmv disputescttlements.Afewalsobecamecouncillors,apost reside. It is interesting to note that the Chief '\finister, similartothat ofMinisterduring the rule ofthe Chogyal. Pawan Kumar Chamling, inaugurated the first Institute of ~ewar Language and Culture in Sikkim at this very After the merger of Sikkim with India., a few Newars site in 2000. Local Newars tell that whenever Baburam succeeded in occupyingministerial positions in the State left his house a band would accompany him and that any Go\"ernment ofSikkim. Other Newars are also known as British officers who \"isited the area were also recei\"ed social reformersandeducatorsinSikkim. Tohonoursuch with a band. Asong was e\"en composed with his name: individuals,theGovernmentofSikkim namedroadsafter kasko baja, kasko baja, Baburamko baja 'Whoseband is them,forinstance,theKashi Raj PradhanMarg(Road)in it') Whose band is it') It is the band of Baburam', and is Gangtok, named afterKashi Raj Pradhan who is remem still popularamong the peoplein Sikkim. beredacross Sikkim as areformer and an educator. Ahouse similartothe Palace in Namthang \\'as also built The 1891 census of Sikkim returned 727 Newars out of in Paclley Khani by oneofChandra\"irPradhan'sdescen a total population of30,558 Sikkim12 In 1994, the total dants. A~ewar styledjhingaleghar, a house withatiled population of the Newars was 20,000 while the present roof, \vas also constructed by the descendants ofthe late l\ewarpopUlation is estimated to lie between30,000and Chandra\"ir,butthe historicbuildingis nowinadilapidat 35,000. edstate.Thechairmanofthe Sikkim NewarOrganisation has suggestedthatthebuilding bereno\"atedas oneofthe Socio-Economic Position important Newarheritage sites. 4 Newah Vijfiano-6 The Newars of Sikkim are engaged in various occupa tiative, he has gathered old coins, notes, historical docu tions, including governmental service, politics, teaching, ments, manuscripts, blx)ks, driftwood and drift stones. agriculture, trade and business. According to Keshav l\lr. Pradhan also grows bonsai and hybrid plants in his Chandra Pradhan, from the 1910s until the 1980s, Nevv family garden. Hiscontributionshave notonly wonmany arsoccupiedmanyimportantadministrativeposts, butthe prizes but also admiration and praise from all over Sik figure has been dropping steadily as members of other kim. Duringmyfieldworkin200-+,Ihadthe goodfortune groups have gradually replaced them. At present,l\/lr. Ra to view his archival collections. The Newar community jiv Shankar Shresthaand Mrs. Jayshree Pradhan serveas ofSikkimarerightfully proudofMr. Jaslal Pradhan, who Principal Secretaries,andareanlOngahandful ofNewars participatedintheOlympicsasaplayerandboxingcoach stilloccupyinghigh-levelpostsintheSikkimeseadminis forIndia. tration. Duringmy field research, two Newars were pres entas electedmembers ofthe32-seat Sikkim Legislative Datafrom 1989wouldsuggestthat27%ofthetotal:'\rewar Assembly Both were memhers of ruling Sikkim Demo populationofSikkim ownless than5acres ofland, while cratic Front, and for some time one had been a cabinet 66%arelandlessand thatonly 10%ofSikkimeseNewars minister. In the May 200-+election,however, only oneof possess assetsinurbanareas(Shrestha 1996: 8). Thissur them was able tocontesttheelectionand was returned as vey, conducted among 7,025 Sikkimese Newars in 1994, a MLAfrom theconstituencyofGangtok. revealed that 33% percent were illiterate and only 5% hada graduatequalification. Educated Newars are for the The Newars are still renowned as traders and remain most partconcentratedinGangtok,the statecapital. engaged in diverse businesses and industries. Many are engaged in tourism, hotels, handicrafts, bakeries, trans While many believe that most of Nevvar society is rich portandthepublishingmedia. Amongthem,theBhansari and as some individuals occupy high government posts, family's Tripti bakery is oneof Sikkim's most prominent the reality is quite different According to former chair industries. Similarly, Bahu Kaji Shakya, a Gangtok man of the Sikkim Newal) Guthi, l\lr. Keshav Chandra based sculptor,has won many prestigiousIndian national Pradhan,less than5%oftheNewarpopulation in Sikkim awards for his contributions to the handicraft industry of onceservedattheChogyal'scourt,havehighgovernment Sikkim. Shakyaproduces traditional Nepalese-styleBud positionsorrun businesshouses thatcanbeconsideredto dhist and Hindu images, statues and jewellery. He owns be affluent The rest are comparatively poor. Analysing a workshop in Rumtek and has a showroom in Gangtok, demographicdatafor Sikkim, BhasinandBhasinshowed and one ofhis sons is following in his father's footsteps. that4Oc:;, of the :'\rewar population lived on less than 500 Afew Newars, suchas RK. PradhanofRhenock, are en rupees incomeperannum andthatonly~%hadanannual gagedin the film industry incomeofbetweenIC20,001 and 25,000(1995: 119). Anumber of Sikkimese Newars have made their reputa Within the Nev,'ar community, then, there is a genuine tion in the garden nursery business. The late Chandrm'ir schism hetween the wealthy and the economically de Kasaju's son Rai SahebRatnabahadurinitiated a nursery pressed families. To a certain extant, there is little mu in Rhenock underhis father's name, which is still known tual trust between these two classes. One of the aims of throughout Sikkim as the 'Chandra Nursery'. Already in the Sikkim Newal) GUfhi is to help the poorer sections the middle oftwentieth century, some Newar traders had of Newar society through financial assistance and other begunexportingflowers, plantsand fruits from Sikkim to means. However, despite the best efforts of the Sikkim Indiaand othercountries. Some such entrepreneurs, such Newa~]GUlhi, v'ery little sign ofcooperation between the as Keshav Chandra Pradhan, a former ChiefSecretaryof poor <md affluent Newar communities is noticeable. As Sikkim are world-renownedin thefield ofplanthushand one of my informants put it, "Unlike other communities ry and have won international awards from Australia, the in Sikkim, the :'\rewars lack a feeling ofmutual coopera United Kingdom, the Lnited States and Japan for their tion,insteadtheyemyeachother's success". Whileother workin this field. Pradhanisnowretiredand growsmany communities in Sikkim generally view the Newars as a varieties oforange and hybrid flowers in his well-tended hard-working people, some portray them as oppressors, garden. sinceduringthe timeoftheChogyal they workedas con tractors and landlords and used harsh measures in collect Newars are also found in the grocery business in many revenue and were authorised to vvhip people who failed settlements across Sikkim, while others are engaged in to provide forced labour (jhara). Older people such as agriculture. Newars were the first tointroducecardamom Daya Prasad Pradhan dismiss such claims and suggest farming in Sikkim, now one of Sikkim's most popular rather that i'\evvars, 111 their capacity as contractors and cash crops. Ganesh Kumar Pradhan of Rhenock is well landlords, were responsible for much development, such known for his antique collection Through personal ini- as openingschlxlls and health centres,constructingroads Shrestha/ Ritual and Identity...Newars in Sikkim 5 and making rest places. It is interesting to note that while caste hierarchies have all butdisappeaJ'edamongtheNewarsofSikkim,theterm Newar Castes 'Pradhan' has become a new caste in Sikkim's existing ethnic hierarchy. Pradhans have acquired a high status alongsideBahunsandtheChetrisanditiswidelybelieved Traditional Newar society in Nepal is a complicated thatthe political association between the Bahuns,Chetris structure with caste divisions and internal hierarchies. aJ1dNewarsofSikkimisalongestablishedone,predating The nineteenth century chronicle, the Bha_avaMsavali, the faJ110US NBC (Newar-Bahun-Chetri) political group credits the fourteenth century king Jayasthiti ~lalla with ingundertheChief\'1inister, NarBahadurBhaJ1dari. introducingthe caste system tothe Nepal Valley (Lamsal 1966: 37-50). In Nepal, caste discrimination is still felt Guthi: Socio-Religious Associations in all traditional Newar settlements and i"ewars still use theircasteoroccupational names. The system of gutllis, or socio-religious associations, is Against the background of Nepal, the disappearance of oneofthemostimportantcomponentsofNewarsociety.13 caste hierarchies among Sikkim's Newars is remarkable In the traditional context,guthis are responsiblefororga and may be the single most salient feature of the dias nising the religious and ritual activities of a community. pora population. \\lith a fevv' exceptions, all Newars in In i"epal, Licchavi inscriptions from the third to eighth Sikkim are nov,: called Pradhan. The term Pradhan, the centuries refer to gOfj[hf, the Sanskrit word from which family name ofonecasteofNepal's Newars, has cometo guthi is derived, can'ying out rituals aJ1d social work. standfor all Newars in Sikkim and Darjeeling. At certain MaJ1Yinscriptions from this perioddescribe gOfj[hffinan period, this was not without controversy. During a dis cial arrangements and their tasks. It appears from these pute between tworival groups inDarjeeling, each claim inscriptions that such associations were important not ing higher status over the other, the Nepalese authori only from the viewpoint ofestablishing and maintaining ties wrote a letter stating, 'Pradhan is among the highest thetemples,monasteries,shrinesandritualsbutwerealso classes of the Newars' (Singh 1991 102) According to instruments ofdevelopment in the fields ofwater supply, Bhuvan Prasad Pradhan (1993 13), the British Govern agriculture, health and public entertainment. Among the ment in India awarded the titleofPradhan to Laksmidas guthis, the sf guthi, the funeral association, is most im for his excellent service in 1913. Laksmidas later asked portaJ1t because membershipin this guthi determines the for all Sikkimese i"ewars to be permitted to usc this title localaffiliationandsocial position(in particularcastesta as their family name to prevent caste divisions within tus) ofa person. The sfguthis are a unique institution of their community. A different interpretation is advanced Newar society. The mainfunction ofaSI guthi is to carry by Khagendra Pradhan, who believes that Laksmidas or Olltfuneral processions whena death occurs in the house dered all Sikkimese i"ewars who had escaped Nepal to ofoneofits members.14 exclusivelyusePradhanas asurnametoprotecttheirlives after the 1846 Kot massacre, thereby helping them hide WhenmigratingtoSikkim,theNewars broughttheirreli theiractual identity(1998: 57). gion,cultureand rituals with them. DayaPrasadPradhaJ1 (1997 2)mentionstheformationaguthiinSumbukvvhen Changingall NewaJ'surnamestoPradhanhelpedtoelimi the Newars settled there around 1850, but he does not natecastehierarchies among the Newars of Sikkim. Dur elaborateonit. HistoricalevidenceshowsthatRhenock,a ing my fieldwork, when Iasked about theirformer castes small town in East Sikkim, vvas oneoftheearliest Newar divisions and names, manydid not knowas they hadlost settlements in the region. In the past, Rhenock was con contact with their relatives in Nepal. However, some of sideredtobeagatewaybetweenKalimpongandNathu-la the Newars who continue to have regular contact with pass,as itlayonthe trade routetoTibet.TheNewars who theirrelativ'es in Nepal wereawareofhav'ingcastenames settled in Rhenock established a traditional guthi before otherthan Pradhan. Amongthem, Irecorded Vajracharya, 1900. This guthi consisted of eighteen household mem Shakya, Tuladhar, Shrestha, Kasaju, Maske and Karm bers at its initiation ,md its main function was to gather acharya, amongothers. Somehavealsoadopted the word at a Shivatempleevery evening where devotionals songs 'Newar' as their family name, particularly in Kurseong, (bhajan) were sung. The Rhenock guthi also orgaJ1ised where all Newars seem to call themselves Ne\var. Re performancesoflakhedances and the worshipofKrishna cently, even thougha few families in Sikkim have begun every year during the gai jatra festival. Most signifi tracing their former caste names, aJ1d some Shresthas, cantly, members of the guthi were obliged to help others Shakyas and Tuladhars have started to use their family whensomeonein theirfamilydied,whichisalsothemain naJnes, it does not seem likely this will rev'ive the caste feature ofa NewarsfgUlhi in \Jepal. It is the task ofthe hierarchies which were so effectively eliminated aJl10ng eldest memberofthe guthi to inform all the members as theNewars in Sikkim. 6 Newah Vi;nana-6 soonassomeonediesand thenall areobligedtoattendthe limpongbranchoftheAllIndiaNel1'arAssociation. funeral procession. On the fourth day after death, mem bers must bring certain focxlstuffs and a specific amount The Newars ofDarjeeling never initiated aguthi as such ofmoney to the bereavedfamily. Guthimembersalsoas butratheraNewa~JSamajor\JewarSocietybackin1921. sistthe grievingfamily duringthegaijatrafestival when Although the Newa1;J Samaj did not carry out the task of a cow procession in the name of the recently deceased a Newar guthi or SI guthi, it was nevertheless active in personisorganised.Thosewhofail infulfillingtheirguthi social and religious work. A decade after its foundation duties arepenalised. Rhenockis the only placein Sikkim it was renamed Nepali Asamartha Sahayak Samiti, or where the Newar Sl guthi is kept alive. However, unlike the Committee to Help Deprived Nepalese, but since the theSIguthis in Nepal, the Rhenockguthidoes not restrict 1970sitreturnedtoitsoriginalnameofNewa.X Samaj. Its membershiptoonecaste butratherincludesall theNewar membersregular!ygathertosingdevotional Newarsongs families in Rhenock. (bhajan) andhavehelpeddestituteNepaleseinDarjeeling on several occasions. The Society has also organised the InJanuary1990,theNewarsofRhenockrestructuredtheir celebrationofJ\ewarfestivals suchas Mhapaja. In 1991, guthi, introducing new regulations suchas financial sup when it celebrated its 75 anniversary, Newa1;J Samaj in port for the bereaved families ofdead members and pro \'ited a large numberofNewarartists from Nepal and or vidinginterest-freemonetaryloans.Atthesame,theguthi ganised a Newarfood festival in Darjeeling. The organi is committed to reviving Newar culture and language in sation builta house ofits own at Chandmari in 1965and the area and has been involved with religious activities since then has been providing meeting space to Newars and traditional dances. Unlike the first Newar guthi, the as \vell as members ofothercommunities. In .June 1993, revivedguthialsonowfunctions asabranchoftheSikkim aiming to promote Newar language, culture and rituals, Ne11'af) Guthi, which means that it has become active in the Newars ofDarjeeling established a new organisation the processofachievingethnicrights for Newars. called DarjeelingNewar Sanga!han, which succeeded in opening twenty branches in West Bengal by 1998. It has After the formation of the Sikkim Nel1'af) Guthi, in all now beenrenamed theAllIndiaNewarOrganisationand settlements where a branchoffice ofthe organisation ex has established branches across India in many ofthe set ists, financial contributions byguthimembers to the fam tlements wherea sizable numberofNewars reside. Since ily members of the dead for the funeral costs have been 1997, the Kalimpong branch has been publishing a news mademandatory. Itis notablethatwhenadeathoccursin bulletinknown as Sukunda(atraditional oil lampused in aNewarfamily in Sikkim,all the neighbours and friends Newar rituals) under the editorship ofYog\'ir Shakya, a comeforward, withoutcasteorethnicrestriction,andpro local teacherand a social worker. In 20~, Sukundawas vide physical comfort and financial support to the griev turned into a news bulletin of the All India Nel1'ar Or ingfamily. This traditionofsupporting bereavedfamilies ganisation. already existed among the Bhutia and Lepchas, and its adoption by Newars may be taken as a sign of their ef Religions and Rituals fective integration in Sikkim. Thefinancial contributions to bereaved families may be quite substantial: one such family told me that they had recently received a total of Though there are a few Newar Christians and I'vIuslims, IC 150,000(about US $3(00)from their relatives, neigh Newar society in Nepal can as a whole be considered a boursandfriends. Hindu-Buddhist mix. In Sikkim, however, thereareafair numberofChristian Ne\\'ars alongside Newar Hindu and Asidefrom theexampleatRhenock,thereisanotableab Buddhistpractitioners. The mixtureorblendingofHindu sence of traditional Newarguthis in Sikkim. Particularly and Buddhist religious features is prevalent among the surprisingis theabsence ofSIguthis, the funeral associa Newars in Sikkim as it is among the Newars of Nepal. The majority of Sikkimese Newars nevertheless identify tions, not only in Sikk.im but also in other parts ofIndia. The onlyexception appears to be Kalimpong. According themselves as Hindu. The process of Hinduisation has a long history among the Newars of Nepal, particularly to Yogvir Shakya, Newal's who settled in Kalimpong for al'ter the implementation ofthe 1856legal code, the !'du trade with Tibet initiated a funeral society (bica~J guthi) luki Ain. Although most lay J\e\\'<lrs practice both Hindu around 1930. This guthi included all Newar castes and and Buddhist rituals without making much distinction, the organisational minutes were written in the Newar they prefer to be referred to as Hindu because it is the language.IS While a minute dated 1955 shows that there religion officially propagated by the state in Nepal It is were ~3 members in the guthi at the time, nowadays the likely that the Newars may also have followed this same organisationconsistsofonlyeighteenmembers. Otherlo trend in Sikkim. The adoption of'Pradhan' as a surname, cal \Jewars, who also called themselves Pradhan, do not even though the name used by both Hindu and Buddhist participate in this guthi but have rather established aKa- Shrestha/ Ritual and Identity."Newars in Sikkim 7