MODERNITY, MEMORY AND IDENTITY IN SOUTH-EAST EUROPE New Social Movements and the Armenian Question in Turkey Civil Society vs. the State Özlem Belçim Galip Modernity, Memory and Identity in South-East Europe Series Editor Catharina Raudvere Department of Cross-Cultural and Regional Studies University of Copenhagen Copenhagen, Denmark This series explores the relationship between the modern history and present of South-East Europe and the long imperial past of the region. This approach aspires to offer a more nuanced understanding of the concepts of modernity and change in this region, from the nineteenth century to the present day. Titles focus on changes in identity, self-representation and cultural expressions in light of the huge pressures triggered by the interaction between external influences and local and regional practices. The books cover three significant chronological units: the decline of empires and their immediate aftermath, authoritarian governance during the twentieth century, and recent uses of history in changing societies in South- East Europe today. More information about this series at http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/15829 Özlem Belçim Galip New Social Movements and the Armenian Question in Turkey Civil Society vs. the State Özlem Belçim Galip The School of Anthropology and Museum Ethnography University of Oxford Oxford, UK ISSN 2523-7985 ISSN 2523-7993 (electronic) Modernity, Memory and Identity in South-East Europe ISBN 978-3-030-59399-5 ISBN 978-3-030-59400-8 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-59400-8 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG. The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland To M. S. A cknowledgments This book developed out of a postdoctoral project in Armenian Studies at the University of Oxford started in 2015 when everybody was more hope- ful for the democracy and freedom of all the people of Turkey. However, I truthfully believe that until the last bit of struggle and resilience perishes, there is hope for the people of Turkey. I know there is. I am grateful to Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation for their generous grant, without which this research would not be possible. It is also a great opportunity to thank the National Association for Armenian Studies and Research (NAASR) for the grant which enabled me to complete the field- work of this research in several cities in Turkey. My thanks go to Selahattin Demirtaş, Rober Koptaş, Pakrat Estukyan, Sevan Değirmenciyan and Jinda Zekioğlu for helping me to reach the participants who were hard to reach out to. Your contribution has been very precious. I also owe a special note of thanks to Prof Theo Maarten van Lint, with deepest gratitude for his mentoring and encouragement throughout the research and beyond. Whenever I need inspiration, he will always shed light on my dark paths. Special thanks also go to my best friend Nazan Kara. I know you have nothing to do with this book or any of my books, but it does not matter. You have been present with your thoughts and soul in every action I have taken throughout the two decades of our friendship. vii viii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would finally also like to acknowledge the support and love of the Galip family with gratitude, and I appreciate having such a forward- looking and resilient family. Last but not least, the latest member of the Galip family, my daughter Uma-Marie Theodora Xezal, who has enriched and blessed our life with her presence—thank you for just being you! It is a blessing to have you as a precious part of my journey. c ontents 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Rationale for This Book 6 1.2 Theoretical Approaches: A New Social Movements and Resource Mobilization Theory Perspective 9 Bibliography 17 2 Revisiting Armenians in the Ottoman Empire: Deportations and Atrocities 21 Bibliography 34 3 From Ottoman Millet to Turkish Citizens: 1923–2002 37 3.1 Denialism in Turkish Academia and Literature 47 Bibliography 56 4 Hopes and Loss of Democratization Under AKP Government: From 2002 Onward 59 4.1 After the First AKP Victory: A Relatively Liberal Environment 60 4.2 D ink’s Assassination Followed by ‘Democratic Opening’ 72 4.3 I ntolerance Toward Non-Muslims: Being Armenian in Turkey 78 4.4 Erdoğan’s ‘New Turkey’: One-Man Rule 83 Bibliography 98 ix x CONTENTS 5 Challenging the Turkish State’s Denial of the Armenian Genocide 103 5.1 The Rise of Civil Society: “We Are All Hrant, We Are All Armenians” 104 5.2 Resource Mobilization: The Apology Campaign, Electoral Advocacy, Gezi Park Protests 117 5.3 Mobilization Among Armenians in Istanbul 121 5.4 Cultural and Symbolic Tactics: Networked Activism and Initiatives by Civil Society 128 5.5 Retrieving ‘Silenced Memories’ Through the Movements 137 5.6 Resistance Performance: Alternative Art, Music and Media 146 5.7 The Rise and Revelation of Islamized Armenians 151 5.8 The Kurds in the Turkish-Armenian Reconciliation Process 156 Bibliography 176 6 Concluding Remarks 185 Bibliography 192 Bibliography 195 Index 215