IAEA TRAINING COURSE SERIES No. 16 Neutron and gamma probes: Their use in agronomy INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY, VIENNA, 2002 The originating Section of this publication in the IAEA was: Soil and Water Management & Crop Nutrition Section International Atomic Energy Agency Wagramer Strasse 5 P.O. Box 100 A-1400 Vienna, Austria NEUTRON AND GAMMA PROBES: THEIR USE IN AGRONOMY IAEA, VIENNA, 2002 IAEA-TCS-16 ISSN 1018–5518 © IAEA, 2002 Printed by the IAEA in Austria August 2002 FOREWORD Water is an essential requirement for life on the planet. It is often the single most limiting factor in crop and livestock production. Water is a scarce resource in many urban and rural environments worldwide. According to the FAO, the global demand for fresh water is doubling every 21 years. The quality of the finite water supplies is also under threat from industrial, agricultural and domestic sources of pollution. The majority of crops are grown under rain-fed conditions and adequate water supply is the main factor limiting crop production in semi-arid and sub-humid regions. On the other hand, currently 20% of the world’s arable land is under irrigation providing 35 to 40% of all agricultural production. Irrigation mismanagement poses a serious threat to the environment through groundwater pollution and salinization. It is therefore, essential that water resources be used efficiently by regular monitoring of soil-water status in the unsaturated zone. The neutron depth probe, a nuclear-based technique, is utilized worldwide for this purpose. The neutron moisture gauge, since its introduction some 40 years ago, can now be considered a routine method in soil water studies. Many developments have since been introduced, in particular electronic components, which have significantly improved performance and expanded applications. Although the neutron scattering method is routinely utilised in many developed countries, its use is still limited in developing countries due to several factors. Neutron depth probes contain radioactive sources, which will present health and environmental hazards if a probe is improperly used, stored or disposed of. National and international legislation and regulations must be complied with. The strategic objective of the sub-program Soil and Water Management & Crop Nutrition of the Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture is to develop and promote the adoption of nuclear-based technologies for optimising soil, water and nutrient management within cropping systems. In this context, neutron moisture probes in combination with isotope techniques are utilized to obtain precise and quantitative data on water and nutrient dynamics in the soil-plant system. The Centre for Nuclear Techniques in Agriculture (CENA) of the University of Sao Paulo, Piracicaba, Brazil is an institute established with IAEA support, with skilled and experienced staff and facilities to utilize nuclear techniques in agronomic and related environmental research. Many training events and formal undergraduate and post-graduate courses involving the use of neutron moisture meters have been offered by CENA. The concept of a training manual originated during a regional training workshop on the use of the neutron probe in water and nutrient balance studies, organized in 1997 in the frame of an IAEA Regional Technical Co-operation Project for Latin America entitled Plant Nutrition, Water and Soil Management (RLA/5/036-ARCAL XXII), for which the integrated approach was adopted. The original version (in Spanish) was a comprehensive manual covering theoretical and practical aspects required for the proper utilization of the equipment. The contributions of the peer reviewers, editors and technical translators of the three versions in English, French and Spanish have greatly enhanced the content and quality of the manual. Their assistance and dedication is highly appreciated. It is hoped that this manual will be useful for future training events and serve as a key reference to soil/water scientists in the field of sustainable management of scarce water resources in both rain-fed and irrigated agricultural production systems. The IAEA officer responsible for this publication was F. Zapata of the Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture. EDITORIAL NOTE The use of particular designations of countries or territories does not imply any judgement by the publisher, the IAEA, as to the legal status of such countries or territories, of their authorities and institutions or of the delimitation of their boundaries. The mention of names of specific companies or products (whether or not indicated as registered) does not imply any intention to infringe proprietary rights, nor should it be construed as an endorsement or recommendation on the part of the IAEA. TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. Introduction............................................................................................................................1 1.1.Soil-water content and bulk density................................................................................2 2. Depth neutron probes.............................................................................................................4 2.1. Instrument description and working principles..............................................................4 2.1.1. The probe and shield............................................................................................4 2.1.2. Electronic counting system...................................................................................5 2.2. Radiation protection and safety of neutron and gamma probes......................................7 2.2.1. Occupational exposure and radiation protection..................................................7 2.2.2. Basic concepts of radiation physics......................................................................8 2.2.3. Basic safety standards for radiation protection and safety of sources................10 2.2.4. Operational radiation safety................................................................................10 2.2.5. Occupational exposure and dose limitations......................................................10 2.3. Access tubes and their installation................................................................................12 2.4. Calibration....................................................................................................................13 2.4.1. Laboratory calibration........................................................................................16 2.4.2. Field calibration..................................................................................................16 2.4.3. Quick field calibration........................................................................................17 2.4.4. Theoretical models.............................................................................................18 2.4.5. Calibration for surface layers..............................................................................18 2.5. Sphere of influence.......................................................................................................18 2.6. Error analysis of determinations of soil-water content and storage..............................20 2.6.1. Instrument and calibration errors........................................................................21 2.6.2. Local error..........................................................................................................28 2.6.3. Errors in the calculation of soil-water storage....................................................32 3. Neutron/gamma probes for simultaneous measurement of soil bulk density and water content.....................................................................................40 3.1. General characteristics..................................................................................................40 3.2. Working principle.........................................................................................................41 3.2.1. Backscattering....................................................................................................41 3.2.2. Attenuation.........................................................................................................42 3.3. Calibration....................................................................................................................43 4. Applications.........................................................................................................................46 4.1. Soil-water storage.........................................................................................................46 4.2. Field soil-water retention curves..................................................................................48 4.3. Soil hydraulic conductivity...........................................................................................49 4.3.1. Methods of Richards et al. (1956)......................................................................51 4.3.2. Method of Libardi et al. (1980)..........................................................................54 4.3.3. Method of Sisson et al. (1980)...........................................................................55 4.4. Water balance...............................................................................................................56 4.4.1. Estimating components of the water balance.....................................................58 4.5. Spatial variability of soil...............................................................................................60 4.6. Water extraction by roots..............................................................................................61 4.7. Irrigation control...........................................................................................................62 4.7.1. Estimation of irrigation depth.............................................................................62 4.7.2. Irrigation frequency............................................................................................65 4.7.3. Evaluation of irrigation systems.........................................................................66 4.8. Control of soil compaction...........................................................................................68 BIBLIOGRAPHY....................................................................................................................71 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS....................................................................................................75 1. INTRODUCTION Agriculture is carried out on a very thin surface layer of soil, as compared with the dimensions of the atmosphere and geosphere. Despite its slim dimension, soil is indispensable for life, being the substrate for the growth of plants that sustain humans and animals. Without soil, our planet would be other than green, and life would be restricted to the oceans. Soil is an important reservoir of fresh water. It transforms discontinuous precipitation into continuous discharges, streams and rivers, and continuously provides moisture to the roots of plants. The rainwater-retention capacity of the soil equals one-third of all fresh water in lakes and reservoirs, and is larger than the volume of riverbeds. Soil water plus ground water are two orders of magnitude greater than all surface fresh water. Ultimately, all studies in soil hydrology have a single objective: better understanding and fuller description of hydrological processes. The elementary components, infiltration, redistribution, drainage, evaporation and evapotranspiration, are first analysed individually and subsequently considered in combination for a particular sequence of events or season. Also, transport of solutes is considered an integral aspect. A thorough understanding of these processes requires their study at several levels of approximation. One level considers the characterisation and quantification of processes for real soils, i.e. field soils, often called “point-scale” studies (Kutilek and Nielsen, 1994). Such studies require detailed characterisation of the three chief components of the porous soil system: the solid, liquid and gaseous phases. The solid phase is represented by particles that vary from soil to soil in quality, size and arrangement. In terms of quality, there are two groupings: organic and mineral. Organic matter can be fresh, partially decomposed or decomposed into humus. The composition of the mineral component depends on the parent rock from which the soil formed. Major components are SiO , Al O , Fe O , CaO, MgO, K O, and P O . Many constituents supply 4 2 3 2 3 2 2 5 elements essential for plant growth and development, and most of the ninety-two naturally occurring elements can be found in soil. Particle size is evaluated by mechanical analysis, with three main groupings commonly delineated: sand (0.05–2 mm), silt (0.002–0.05 mm) and clay (<0.002 mm). The relative content of these fractions defines the texture used to classify soils, e.g. silt-loam, clay-loam, sandy-clay. The arrangement of the particles defines structure, and packing of solid material defines the space that is occupied by water or air. An important soil attribute related to the solid phase is bulk density, i.e. the mass of solid material contained per unit bulk volume. Bulk density is inversely related to soil porosity and, therefore, is a factor in compaction and aeration problems. The liquid phase is a dilute aqueous solution containing a variety of ions, salts and molecules including organic compounds. It represents the pool of nutrients essential for plant growth and development, which is continuously renewed by physical-chemical interactions between soil particles, water and gases. The liquid phase is quantified as soil-water content, which is the mass or volume of water per unit mass of dry soil or per unit volume of bulk soil. In a soil profile, moisture content integrated with depth represents the so-called water storage. The amount of water in soil is influenced by prevailing conditions. The reservoir is replenished by rainfall, irrigation, and melting snow, and is depleted by evaporation, transpiration, and drainage to deeper zones. For agronomic purposes, a useful range of soil- 11 water content is defined as available moisture that can be used by plants and is of extreme importance for crop production. In cases of low water availability, irrigation may complement crop needs, and, in cases of excess, drainage facilities may eliminate the surplus. Organisms in the soil, including plant roots, require a supply of oxygen. Soil aeration depends on the porous space and the degree to which it is occupied by water. An ideal soil is 50% solids, 25% water and 25% air. The authors’ intention is not to provide comprehensive coverage of the processes that occur in soil; detailed textbooks and related journal articles are already available. The present text is restricted to the description of two nuclear techniques, suitable for “point-scale” studies and for porous soil-system characterisation: neutron moderation and γ-radiation attenuation methods, for the measurement of soil-water content and soil bulk density. 1.1. Soil-water content and bulk density Water content, although a simple concept in soil physics, is difficult to evaluate in the field. Estimates obtained through the many methods available often deviate considerably from the “true” value, which, in reality, is never known. The main problem lies in sampling procedures. Once a soil sample is taken from the field to the laboratory, its water content can be estimated with a high degree of precision and accuracy. However, it is never known if the collected sample truly represents the soil at the desired depth, due mainly to soil variability and uncertainty associated with sampling. Moisture content can be estimated on a weight or a volume basis. In this work we will use the following symbols and definitions: − Soil-water content by weight w [(g H O) (g dry soil)-1] 2 mass of water m −m w = = w d (1) mass of dry soil m d where m and m are the masses of wet and dry soil, respectively (g). w d − Soil-water content by volume θ [(cm3 H O)(cm3 dry soil)-1] 2 volume of water m −m θ= = w d (2) bulk volumeof soil V where V is the volume of the soil sample (cm3). In this definition, it is assumed that the density of water is 1 g/cm3, therefore, (m – m ) is w d equal to the volume of water. It can be shown that θ=w×d (3) b 22 where d is the bulk density of the dry soil [(g dry soil)(cm3 of bulk soil)-1] defined by b m d = d (4) b V Example: In a soil profile, a sample was collected at 20 cm with a volumetric cylinder of 200 cm3 and 105.3 g. After handling the sample in the laboratory, removing excess soil from the outside of the cylinder and ensuring that the soil occupied the volume V of the cylinder, o the sample weighed 395.6 g. After the sample was dried in a ventilated oven at 105 C to a constant weight, its final mass was 335.7 g. In this case, 395.6−335.7 w= = 0.260 g g-1 or 26% by weight 335.7−105.3 395.6−335.7 θ= = 0.300 cm3 cm-3 or 30% by volume 1×200 335.7−105.3 d = = 1.152 g cm-3 b 1×200 and, according to eq. (3), 0.300 = 1.152 [(g dry soil)(cm3 of bulk soil)-1] × 0.260[(g H O)(g dry soil)-1] 2 The several methods for determining soil-water content and bulk density differ mainly in terms of sampling method, but equations (1) through (4) are always applicable when the information is available. The greatest difficulty lies in the measurement of V, because sampling with a simple auger destroys the structure of the soil. In this text we will not discuss the “classical” methods of soil-water measurement, which are covered in basic soil physics texts, such as the Methods of Soil Analysis monograph (Klute,1986). A disadvantage of the classical methods is their destructive feature. With each sampling event, the soil profile is disturbed. Even with a simple auger, several samplings will destroy a small plot. Soil variability presents an additional problem; collecting soil at the “same” depth requires another location to be sampled. A third problem, albeit minor, is the time required for oven-drying each sample. The minimum is 24 h. With the use of a neutron probe, which we will discuss in detail, there is little disturbance of the soil profile. Only once is it necessary to introduce an access tube to a desired soil depth, and, thereafter, measurements can be taken repeatedly at any depth or time, in a matter of minutes. Of course, there are disadvantages with the neutron probe, which will be discussed also. 33 2. DEPTH NEUTRON PROBES 2.1. Instrument description and working principles A neutron probe consists of two main parts: the probe and shield, and the electronic counting system. In some models these parts are separable. 2.1.1. The probe and shield The probe is a sealed metallic cylinder 3 to 5 cm in diameter and 20 to 30 cm in length. It contains a radioactive source that emits fast neutrons, a slow neutron detector, and a pre- amplifier. The signal from the pre-amplifier passes through a 5- to 20-m long cable to the electronic counting system. The geometry of the probe, type and activity of the neutron source, type of detector and pre-amplifier vary considerably depending on manufacturer. Neutron sources are a mixture of an alpha-particle emitter (e.g. americium and radium) and a fine powder of beryllium. When alpha particles bombard beryllium nuclei: 4α + 9Be→1n + 12C 2 4 0 6 The neutrons have energies up to 14 MeV, (1 eV = 1.6×10-19 J), with an average value of approximately 4.5 MeV (fast neutrons). The strength of the source is generally given by the activity of the alpha emitter, in becquerels (Bq). Most sources have an activity in the range of 370 to 1,850 MBq (10–50 mCi). Most alpha emitters also emit γ radiation and fast neutrons. Therefore, protection of the user is an important issue. The shield, which is the container for the probe, has to be properly designed to provide such protection. Commercially manufactured probes stored in a shield expose the user only to permissible levels of radiation. The user is exposed to γγγγ radiation and fast neutrons if the probe is not in the protective shield. Such exposure should be absolutely avoided. The design of the shield and probe allows the probe to leave the shield and pass immediately into the soil, avoiding excessive radiation exposure. Shielding from γ radiation is most efficiently provided by lead, whereas shielding from fast neutrons is provided by paraffin, polyethylene, or other material high in hydrogen content. Hence, neutron-probe shields are generally made of lead and a hydrogen-containing material. During measurements, the probe is lowered to the desired depth in the soil inside an aluminium access tube that is “transparent” to fast neutrons, which are scattered by the soil within 30 to 50 cm of the source. As a result of this scattering, the neutrons lose energy and are slowed. This interaction is used to estimate moisture content, as described below. Close to the source is a detector that counts only slow, not fast, neutrons. Several slow- neutron detectors are available, e.g. 10BFl , 3He, and scintillation detectors, each of which has 3 advantages and disadvantages. 4