NBaebeedl 4s6 A:4s 2s8e9s–s2m99e n© tF iéndé Trartiaonn sIlnatetrinoanti oTnealaec dheisn Tgraducteurs (FIT) Revue Babel 289 Needs Assessment in Translation Teaching Making Translator Training More Responsive to Social Needs* Defeng Li Introduction (c) John Benjamins As we are advancing into the new millennium, changes are taking place in translation markets anDd eteclihvnoelorgeyd is fbasyt bIencogmeinng toamnipresent. In the face of changes aonnd :n eSwa tetc,h 1no8lo gNy, otrvan s2la0tio0n6 p r0og0ra:m3s0 a:n5d5 courses must respond to the changing needs of the society. In the process of planning and to: University at Illinois at Urbana-Champaign restructuring translation programs to address the changing social needs, IP: 130.126.32.13 needs assessment is crucial. Rather than sitting behind closed doors charting out possible needs of our students, which often are considerably different from the actual needs of translators (Cheung, Xu, Chan and Yim, 1993), we need to carry out needs assessment to find out what translators’ real needs are. Even in the planning of an individual course, learners’ needs must be taken into consideration and therefore needs assessments should also be conducted in order to ensure that the course is relevant to students’ needs and the time and resources are best used. Results from needs assessment can be used to make decisions about internal programming and resource allocation. They can also inform our decision about materials selection, curricular design and teaching approaches. * This study was supported by Direct Grant of Research (No. 2010186) of the Chinese University of Hong Kong. 290 Defeng Li Definition of Needs Assessment for Translation Teaching Needs assessment has been defined in many ways. York (1982) stated simply that needs assessment is a “measure of how much of what is needed.” For McKillip (1987), needs assessment is a process of “ordering and prioritization” of social/learner needs. Reviere et al. (1996) defines needs assessment as a systematic and ongoing process of providing usable and useful information about the needs of the target population — to those who can and will utilize it to make judgements about policy and programs. Needs assessment, according to Reviere et al., is population-specific, but systematically focused, empirically based, and outcome-oriented. Needs assessment, then, is a form of applied research that extends beyond data collection and analysis to cover the utiliza- tion of the findings (p. 6). So what is a needs assessment for translation teaching? First, it is a tool that examines, from the perspective of the translation learner, what kinds of translational competence the learner believes she already has, the translation (c) John Benjamins contexts in which the translator lives and works; what the translation learner Delivered by Ingenta wants and needs to know to function in those contexts; and what the transla- tion learner eoxnpe:c tSs tao tg,a i1n 8fr oNm othve i2ns0tru0ct6io n0al0 p:r3og0ra:m5 5or a particular ctoour:s eU. Snecivoned,r sneietdys aasste sIslmlinenot iiss a adetc iUsiornb-maankiang- Cprohceassm ofp oardiegrinng and prioritization of translation learners’ needs when they are clearly defined, IP: 130.126.32.13 thus influencing program innovation, curriculum design, materials selection, and teaching approaches. Therefore, needs assessment for translation teach- ing should be a continual process and take place throughout the instructional program (Burnaby, 1989; Savage, 1993). Rationale for Needs Assessment in Translation Teaching According to Reviere et al. (1996), a well-planned, methodologically sound needs assessment can and should be a powerful guiding force for change. As a type of applied social research, needs assessment is meant to foster program development and policy-making. The information gathered from needs as- sessment can aid administrators, teachers, and tutors in developing curricula, materials, skills assessment, and teaching methods. There is general, though not universal, agreement among educators that program and curriculum design and innovation should be based on learner needs (Pratt, 1994: 35). However, I suspect that many of the translation Needs Assessment in Translation Teaching 291 programs in operation today were most probably not developed on the needs of the learners; rather, they were the products of academics’ in-house theoriz- ing and philosophizing based on their own individual experiences with lan- guages and translation and also what they believe about teaching of translation. That is, how translation programs and curricula should be structured has so far been based mostly on translation teachers’ assumptions about translation and translation teaching. But, unfortunately, such assumptions quite often do not adequately reflect the reality of the world of professional translators. One obvious reason is that many of us teachers have not been professional translators ourselves although some may have been occasional free-lance translators (but mostly, of literary texts). Even though some of us might be professional translators before joining the teaching/training profession, our knowledge and understanding of the translation world are out-dated after these years of rapid changes that have taken place in the world. This divorce of translation academics from the real world of professional translators have actually been recognized by translation scholars too. (c) John Benjamins As Gile (1995) observes, although many teachers of interpretation are Delivered by Ingenta themselves practising interpreters, and most of them understandably prefer (need) to devooten th:e Sir taimte, to1 th8e irN proofves s2io0na0l o6cc u0p0ati:o3n0 ra:th5e5r than research, “tToh:e sUitunatiivone irs sdiiftfyer eantt reIlglairndso wisri ttaent trUanrsblataionn,a w-iCth ah naummbper aofi gfunll- time academics not engaged in the practice of professional translation doing IP: 130.126.32.13 translation research. In fact, many well-known personalities in the field of translation studies have this particular background” (p. 4). Consequently, the needs of our students charted out behind closed doors by translation teachers are often considerably different from the actual needs of translators (Cheung et al., 1993). For instance, Li (1999) finds in his study of professional translators in Hong Kong that the training programs in opera- tion today, at least in Hong Kong, were originally designed to train literary translators and still have an obvious literary translation slant even after changes made over the years, whereas almost all of the graduates get jobs of translating non-literary texts. Also, in addition to complete translation, translators in Hong Kong today are receiving more assignments of vetting, abstract translation, summary translation and abridged translation. Yet in all the translation pro- grams, students are taught how to do complete translation but little on how to do selective translation. As a result, many subjects in Li’s study felt that they were underprepared for their jobs. Secondly, the changing world of translation and interpretation also war- 292 Defeng Li rants needs assessment in translation teaching. For instance, with the introduc- tion of information technology into translation, machine translation, web- translation and teletranslation (O’Hagan 1996) have appeared in translation contexts. Translators constantly have to face new challenges ranging from translation of new terms and contents of different disciplines to new ways of translation such as teletranslation. With challenges in translators’ jobs come the changes in the needs for training. Needs assessment is then the tool to constantly examine learners’ needs in order to keep the training programs informed. Social and political changes can also effect changes in the needs in the translation market. Hong Kong is a case in point. As the result of the turnover of Hong Kong to Chinese sovereignty, Hong Kong is enjoying a much closer relationship with the Mainland today. This at least has changed the translation tasks in two ways: contents and translation directions. Since the handover in July 1997, Chinese has been in much wider use in Hong Kong. According to the survey done by Li (1999), there are now more documents written in (c) John Benjamins Chinese both in government and commercial sectors. As a result, although Delivered by Ingenta they received more training in translation from English into Chinese, today translators ino Hnon: gS Kaontg, n1ee8d tNo toravns l2ate0 m0o6re 0fro0m: 3C0hi:n5es5e into English, ctoont:r aUry ntoi vwehrats tihteyy ahatd Itlol indoo bisef oaret wUhernb Haonnga K-Conhg awmas punadeirg tnhe British governance. They need to write better English than most of them had IP: 130.126.32.13 thought before, thus making it necessary for them to change English from a passive language into an active language. Also, since the handover, actually since the signing, in 1984, of the Sino- British Joint Declaration on the future of Hong Kong, Hong Kong has been receiving more influence from the Mainland. There have been more businesses connected with the Mainland today than ever before (Lie, 1995). Translators today in Hong Kong have to translate more China-related documents. They generally found such translation assignments challenging because “we really don’t know much about the Mainland, especially its political-social systems… we are not familiar with the terms that are used in the Mainland and therefore it is difficult to put them into proper English” (Li 1999: 11). All this has made translation today different from only a few years ago. Prompt reflection of the changes of translation markets and hence translators’ needs in translation programs is invaluable to the teaching of translation, both in designing programs and materials, and optimizing training approaches and methods. Needs assessment is then a tool that can be used for this purpose. Needs Assessment in Translation Teaching 293 Needs assessments can be done at different stages of a program. Before the development of a new translation program or restructuring of an existing program, needs assessment can assure that a new program or innovated program meets students’ needs. At the beginning of the program, needs assessment might be used to determine appropriate program types and course content; during the program, it assures that learner and program goals are being met and allows for necessary program changes; at the end of the program, it can be used for assessing progress and planning future directions for learners and the program. As pointed our earlier, needs assessment process can also be used as the basis for developing curricula and classroom practice that are responsive to learners’ and social needs. Burnaby points out that “the curriculum content and learning experiences to take place in class should be negotiated between learners, teacher and coordinator at the beginning of the project and renegoti- ated regularly during the project” (Burnaby 1989: 20). Therefore, assessing the needs, interests, and goals of learners is in fact an integral part of (c) John Benjamins translation teaching and of great importance in creating a “leaner-centered’ Delivered by Ingenta classroom. In addition, within a particular level, each group of learners is different, ando thne: r aSngae to,f s1k8ill s,N inotevre s2ts,0 a0nd6 g o0al0s w:3ith0in: 5a 5class may vary wtoid:e lyU frnomiv iendrisviidtuya l atot inIldliivnidouaisl a nadt f rUomr bgraounpa to- Cgrohupa. mThpe taeaicghner, the individual learners, and the class as a whole need to be aware of these IP: 130.126.32.13 differences so that the course can be adapted to the particular group of individuals. Therefore, classroom needs assessment can assure a flexible, responsive curriculum rather than a fixed, linear curriculum determined ahead of time by instructors. Again, needs assessment can be done at different points in the course and for a variety of purposes. Needs assessment can be done early or midway in the course or prior to each unit (pre-topic) in order to determine what students already know and to help clarify their goals. Furthermore, it can assist the teacher in selecting, prioritizing, adapting materials and curricula. Needs assessment can also be done routinely as part of the course (on-going) in order to insure that learner needs and goals are being met. In addition, needs assessment can occur at the completion of a unit or course (final) to take account of accomplishments and to help learners make decisions about educational goals for the future. To gather comprehensive and updated information, needs assessments should also involve professional translators and employers of translation 294 Defeng Li graduates in addition to in-program translation students. Since professional translators and employers of translation graduates know well the translation market, their perceptions on translator training can ensure that the programs are informed of the needs and changes of the professional translation world. They can then complement translation students in their perceived needs, which may be incomplete or even somehow biased due to lack of knowledge of the real translation world or misunderstanding of the translation market. However, it may not be realistic to involve people other than translation students in the design of one individual course due to time constraints. Needs Assessment Methods for Translation Teaching Needs assessment with learners in translation programs can take a variety of forms, including survey questionnaires on which learners check areas of interest or need, structured or open-ended interviews, and focus group method. (c) John Benjamins Surveys Delivered by Ingenta Surveys are oamno:n gS tahet ,m 1os8t cNomomvon 2ly 0se0le6ct e0d 0m:e3th0od:s5 f5or conducting nteoed:s Uasnseisvsmeernsts ibtyec aauste Itlhleiny ocains v earyt eUasrilby aannd aex-pCedhienatlmy gpenaeriagten a significant amount of numerical or quantitative data. Surveys are a cost- IP: 130.126.32.13 effective means of collecting information from a large number of individuals. Because surveys can be efficiently administered to large numbers of respon- dents, surveys are more likely to provide results that are representative of the target population. Quantifying responses, such as attitudes, perceptions, and the needs for services, is an important attribute of this method. Other meth- ods, such as interviews, can also yield quantitative results. However, surveys are better able to do so because they rely largely on fixed choice questions. There is no one preferred survey method to use when conducting needs assessments. Mailout surveys, telephone surveys, or face-to face surveys can all be used for this purpose. When questionnaire surveys are used, they are typically structured or at least semi-structured. The larger the number of informants, the greater the reliance on structured or fixed-choice questions. Fixed-choice questions allow responses to be tabulated quickly and the wide range of possible responses from fixed or open-ended questions requires more elaborate coding schemes to encompass most of the possible responses. However, issues such as the data collection method and sampling require- Needs Assessment in Translation Teaching 295 ments need to be considered before undertaking a needs assessment using survey methods. Interview Methods Interview method is another often used form of needs assessment. Interview methods refer to the collection of information from respondents through “real time” face-to-face or telephone contact. Because it requires direct contact, this method is the most time consuming and therefore most costly. There are three types of interviews: structured, semi-structured, and open-ended. Structured interviews are similar to surveys in that it uses questions with specific response choices. However, unlike most surveys, questions are usually read and responses are noted by the interview-adminis- tering personnel. Semi-structured interview methods refer to the use of questions that offer a fixed set of response choices but leave one or more unrestricted responses (c) John Benjamins open to respondents to write in their own words. The advantage is that it Delivered by Ingenta provides respondents with viable or realistic and convenient response choices that they cano senle:c tS exapte,d i1en8tly ,N wohivle a2ll0ow0in6g f0or0 u:n3iq0ue: 5re5sponses to fall otuots:i dUe onf ithvee firxsedit cyh oaicte sI.llinois at Urbana-Champaign Open-ended interview questions have no restrictions for respondents. In IP: 130.126.32.13 this interview, informants can respond in their own words and it also gives the interviewer opportunities to ask respondents to clarify and expound on re- sponses and reasons for their responses. This enables the interviewer to obtain more complete responses. But analysis of data gathered through non- structured interviews takes more time since the data will not be easy to code and does not lend itself readily to quantification. Focus Group Method Focus group method refers to the collection of information from respondents through organized group discussions. Focus groups usually consist of eight to ten participants and a moderator or facilitator. The group can be smaller to allow for more participation of individual group members. Optimal meeting times range from 40 minutes to three hours, depending on the breadth and depth of topics. The facilitator or discussion moderator typically prepares a subject guide, a list of topics or questions that are to be discussed during the 296 Defeng Li time. The advantage of focus group method is its obvious concentration on the quality of information. It gives informants opportunities to express their views with no restrictions and participants become engaged in the topics at a greater level. Information derived from focus groups can stand on its own merits or be combined with existing quantitative data on the same topics. This method can also be used to collect information needed to design more quantitative needs assessment instruments. If conducted correctly, focus groups provide very rich and comprehensive information that more structured methods, such as surveys or questionnaires cannot provide. However, like all qualitative study, the coding of data derived from focus group method will be considerably more difficult than surveys and questionnaires. The above methods are in general useful for both identifying needs for the purpose of developing, innovating and restructuring translation programs and for classroom needs assessment as well. In addition to the methods mentioned above, there are several other methods which can also be used, but (c) John Benjamins probably more appropriate for classroom needs assessment, such as checklist, Delivered by Ingenta rating scales or simply ask students to write a short essay on what they want to learn. on: Sat, 18 Nov 2006 00:30:55 to:T Uhrene imvaejorrs fiatcyto ras ct aInl lhienlpo uiss d eactid eU threb maenthaod-(Cs) htoa bem uspeda. iTghney are time, resources (funding and personnel) and knowledge. Each needs IP: 130.126.32.13 assessment method differs in the time needed for implementation, the number of people involved, the funding resources required, and the technical knowl- edge needed. No method is perfect or inherently better than others. We can choose one method or a combination of two or more most appropriate for our purpose. Although these methods were considered independently, they can be fruitfully used in combination in a single needs assessment. Application of Needs Assessment Findings In conducting needs assessments, plans should also be made to utilize the information gathered for programmatic and curricular changes. Organizations and teachers undertaking needs assessments need to think about the changes they are willing and able to make based on the information obtained before they gather new information. Description of learners’ and social needs is most appropriately seen as a first step, and needs assessment findings should be treated as essential means to an end rather than an end in themselves. Needs Assessment in Translation Teaching 297 The information gathered can and should be tallied and processed with the group of learners so that both teacher and learners become aware of the expectations of others in the class. When there are differences in expressed needs and goals, the negotiation and compromise must occur. If learners are to understand the purpose and value of needs assessment, the information gathered must be applied in obvious ways during the course. Decisions about course content and direction should reflect the results of needs assessment. Teachers who ask learners to express their needs and goals must also be willing to adapt their teaching so that learners feel that their needs are being addressed. Conclusion Despite the absence of a single standardized methodology or cohesive body of guiding theory, needs assessment has become increasingly popular (Riviere 1996:1). Needs assessment can take many forms and can be carried (c) John Benjamins out at different times during the instructional process. Whatever the focus and Delivered by Ingenta format, the purpose is to find what translation students need to learn and want to learn. Wheon ncu:r rSicualutm, c1o8nt eNnt, omvat e2ria0ls0, a6nd 0 te0ac:h3in0g :a5pp5roaches match stooci:a lU nenedisv, esturdseintty m oatitv aItliloinn aondis s uaccte sUs arrbe eanhnaanc-eCd.hampaign IP: 130.126.32.13 References Burnaby, B. 1989. Parameters for projects under the settlement language training program. Toronto, Ontario: TESL Canada Federation. 47 pp. Cheung Y., Xu, Y., Chan, S. & Yim, C. 1993. Professional translation in Hong Kong: How and by whom. Hong Kong: Centre for Translation Studies, Hong Kong Polytech- nic. 105 pp. Gile, Daniel. 1995. Mirror Mirror on the Wall: An Introduction. Target, 7/1: 1-5. Li, D. 1999. Tailoring Translation Programs to Social Needs: A Survey of Professional Translators. Presented at Translation in Hong Kong: Past, Present and Future. March 17-19, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong. 25 pp. Lie, Raymond S. C. 1995. Commercial Translation. In Chan, Sin Wai & David Pollard (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Translation, 95-109. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press. 654 pp. McKillip, J. 1987. Need Analysis: Tools for the human services and education. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. 143 pp. O’Hagan, M. 1996. The Coming Industry of Teletranslation: Overcoming Communication Barriers through Telecommunication. Clevedon: Mutilingual Matters Ltd.. 120 pp. Pratt, D. 1994. Curriculum planning: A handbook for professionals. FL, Orlando: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc. 487 pp. 298 Defeng Li Reviere, R., Berkowitz, S., Carter, C. C. & Furguson, C. G. 1996. Needs assessment: A creative and practical guide for social scientists. Washington: Taylor & Francis. 233 pp. Savage, L. 1993. Literacy through a competency-based educational approach. In J. A. Crandall & J. K. Peyton (Eds.), Approaches to adult ESL literacy instruction. Wash- ington, DC and McHenry, IL: Center for Applied Linguistics and Delta Systems. 48 pp. York, R. O. 1982. Human service planning: Concepts, tools, and methods. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. 229 pp. About the Author LI, Defeng, B.A., M. Phil., Ph.D., Assistant Professor in the Department of Translation, Chinese University of Hong Kong, has taught English and translation in Hong Kong, Mainland China and Canada. His academic interests include translation studies, transla- tion teaching research and second language education. His present study in translation focuses on translation pedagogy and curriculum and materials development in translation. Among others, Translation Theory and Practice and An English Speaking Course for College Students are two (mcaj)o r Jpuoblhicantio nBs hee nhajsa pumt oiunt isn the last few years. He has also written for leading international journals such as TESOL Quarterly and Teaching and Delivered by Ingenta Teacher Education. on: Sat, 18 Nov 2006 00:30:55 Address: Department of Translation, Chinese University of Hong Kong. Shatin, N.T., Htoong: KUonng.iversity at Illinois at Urbana-Champaign IP: 130.126.32.13 Abstract As we are advancing into the new millennium, changes are taking place in translation markets and technology is fast becoming omnipresent. In the face of changes and new technology, translation programs and courses must respond to the changing needs of society. It is argued in this paper that in the process of planning/restructuring/innovating transla- tion programs to address the changing social needs, needs assessment is crucial. Rather than sitting behind closed doors charting out the possible needs of our students, which often are considerably different from the actual needs of translators (Cheung, Xu, Chan and Yim 1993), we need to carry out serious needs assessment to find out what the real needs are. It is further argued that needs assessment should be a continual process and take place throughout the instructional program (Burnaby 1989; Savage 1993), thus influencing materials selection, curriculum design and teaching approaches. Major assessment meth- ods for translation programs/courses are then described in brief for reference. The paper concludes that (1) Whatever the format and focus of the needs assessment, the basic purpose is to determine what are the real needs of our students: and (2) When curriculum content, materials, and teaching approaches match social needs, student motivation and success are enhanced.