*mg>? 7<уИЩ Qualitative Essentials Series Editor Janice Morse, Sî^<< University of Utah 1 л I Qualitative Essentials is a book series providing a comprehensive but succinct overview of topics in qualitative inquiry. These books will fill an important niche in qualitative methods for students and others new to qualitative inquiry who require a щ rapid but complete perspective of specific methods, strategies, and important topics. Written by leaders in qualitative inquiry, alone or in combination, these <ш books will be an excellent resource for instructors and students from all disciplines. Proposals for the series should be sent to the series editor at [email protected]. Titles from the Qualitative Essentials series: 1. Naturalistic Observation, Michael V. Angrosino sv-<" Forthcoming Titles: ;:$?} Qualitative Essentials, Maria Mayan Focus Groups, Martha Ann Carey Participatory Action Research, Marilyn Mardiros v-çeîag s$£ Walnut Creek, CA *mg>? 7<уИЩ Qualitative Essentials Series Editor Janice Morse, Sî^<< University of Utah 1 л I Qualitative Essentials is a book series providing a comprehensive but succinct overview of topics in qualitative inquiry. These books will fill an important niche in qualitative methods for students and others new to qualitative inquiry who require a щ rapid but complete perspective of specific methods, strategies, and important topics. Written by leaders in qualitative inquiry, alone or in combination, these <ш books will be an excellent resource for instructors and students from all disciplines. Proposals for the series should be sent to the series editor at [email protected]. Titles from the Qualitative Essentials series: 1. Naturalistic Observation, Michael V. Angrosino sv-<" Forthcoming Titles: ;:$?} Qualitative Essentials, Maria Mayan Focus Groups, Martha Ann Carey Participatory Action Research, Marilyn Mardiros v-çeîag s$£ Walnut Creek, CA I Contents Left coast Press Chapter One inc. What Is Naturalistic Observation? 1 1630 North Main Street, #400 Walnut Creek, CA 94596 Chapter Two http://www.LCoastPress.com Why Do Qualitative Researchers Choose Copyright © 2007 by Left Coast Press, Inc. Naturalistic Observation as a Tool of Research? 25 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, Chapter Three mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission The Varieties of Naturalistic Observation 31 of the publisher. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Chapter Four Angrosino, Michael V. Naturalistic Observation: Naturalistic observation / Michael V. Angrosino. p. cm. -- (Qualitative essentials) Procedures and Practicalities 43 Includes bibliographical references. ISBN-13: 978-1-59874-059-2 (hardback : alk. paper) Chapter Five ISBN-10: 1-59874-059-8 (hardback : alk. paper) The Ethics of Naturalistic Observation 75 ISBN-13: 978-1-59874-060-8 (pbk. : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 1-59874-060-1 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Ethnology-Methodology. 2. Ethnology-Research. I. Title. Chapter Six GN345.A56 2007 305.8001-dc22 Current Issues in Naturalistic Observation 85 Printed in the United States of America Chapter Seven The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992. Looking Ahead 117 Edited by Megan Pearson Designed by Murray Pearson Glossary 121 Email [email protected] for more information. References 127 07 08 09 10 11 5 4 3 2 1 About the Author 138 I Contents Left coast Press Chapter One inc. What Is Naturalistic Observation? 1 1630 North Main Street, #400 Walnut Creek, CA 94596 Chapter Two http://www.LCoastPress.com Why Do Qualitative Researchers Choose Copyright © 2007 by Left Coast Press, Inc. Naturalistic Observation as a Tool of Research? 25 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, Chapter Three mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission The Varieties of Naturalistic Observation 31 of the publisher. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Chapter Four Angrosino, Michael V. Naturalistic Observation: Naturalistic observation / Michael V. Angrosino. p. cm. -- (Qualitative essentials) Procedures and Practicalities 43 Includes bibliographical references. ISBN-13: 978-1-59874-059-2 (hardback : alk. paper) Chapter Five ISBN-10: 1-59874-059-8 (hardback : alk. paper) The Ethics of Naturalistic Observation 75 ISBN-13: 978-1-59874-060-8 (pbk. : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 1-59874-060-1 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Ethnology-Methodology. 2. Ethnology-Research. I. Title. Chapter Six GN345.A56 2007 305.8001-dc22 Current Issues in Naturalistic Observation 85 Printed in the United States of America Chapter Seven The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992. Looking Ahead 117 Edited by Megan Pearson Designed by Murray Pearson Glossary 121 Email [email protected] for more information. References 127 07 08 09 10 11 5 4 3 2 1 About the Author 138 ж Acknowledgements I am grateful to Mitch Allen of Left Coast Press, Inc., and to Janice Morse, the general editor of this series for giving me the opportunity to share my enthusiasm for qualitative research in general and for observational techniques in particular. Their very astute and helpful comments kept me on track throughout the process of writing and revising this manuscript. I also acknowledge my students at the University of South Florida What is Naturalistic The Process of Collecting who have engaged me in creative dialogue about qualitative methods over the Observation? 2 Information by Means of years and whose needs as budding researchers have shaped my approach Naturalistic Observation: to this topic. I also once again thank Petra LeClair for incomparable clerical Why Do Qualitative Researchers The Procedural Arc 14 and editorial assistance. Choose Naturalistic • The descriptive phase Observation • The focusing phase • The selective phase as a Research Tool? 4 The photos in this book were taken over the course of several ethnographic • The saturation point visits to Trinidad in the West Indies. Most of them are over thirty years old. Site Selection Examples 5 As such they predate the current era of informed consent that is discussed How a Naturalistic Observer • Public spaces and opportunity- in the chapter on ethics, although all the people in the pictures gave me general based site selection Takes Notes 16 verbal consent to use their images "for purposes of research." I thank them • Site selection for for their willingness to share their lives with me and, by extension, theoretical interests Evaluating Data Collected • Site selection for policy issues by Means of Naturalistic with the readers of this book. • Site selection for a Observation 17 research commission . Validity — Michael V. Angrosino • Site selection for research linkage • Reliability Basic Principles Observer Roles 18 of Site Selection 8 • Complete participants • Participants-as-observers Gaining Entrée 10 • Observers-as-participants • Informal gatekeepers • Complete members • Formal gatekeepers • Active members • Evolving members • Complete observers How Researchers Position Themselves in the Field ... 11 For Discussion 23 Necessary Research Skills ... 12 Necessary Interpersonal and Social Skills 13 ж Acknowledgements I am grateful to Mitch Allen of Left Coast Press, Inc., and to Janice Morse, the general editor of this series for giving me the opportunity to share my enthusiasm for qualitative research in general and for observational techniques in particular. Their very astute and helpful comments kept me on track throughout the process of writing and revising this manuscript. I also acknowledge my students at the University of South Florida What is Naturalistic The Process of Collecting who have engaged me in creative dialogue about qualitative methods over the Observation? 2 Information by Means of years and whose needs as budding researchers have shaped my approach Naturalistic Observation: to this topic. I also once again thank Petra LeClair for incomparable clerical Why Do Qualitative Researchers The Procedural Arc 14 and editorial assistance. Choose Naturalistic • The descriptive phase Observation • The focusing phase • The selective phase as a Research Tool? 4 The photos in this book were taken over the course of several ethnographic • The saturation point visits to Trinidad in the West Indies. Most of them are over thirty years old. Site Selection Examples 5 As such they predate the current era of informed consent that is discussed How a Naturalistic Observer • Public spaces and opportunity- in the chapter on ethics, although all the people in the pictures gave me general based site selection Takes Notes 16 verbal consent to use their images "for purposes of research." I thank them • Site selection for for their willingness to share their lives with me and, by extension, theoretical interests Evaluating Data Collected • Site selection for policy issues by Means of Naturalistic with the readers of this book. • Site selection for a Observation 17 research commission . Validity — Michael V. Angrosino • Site selection for research linkage • Reliability Basic Principles Observer Roles 18 of Site Selection 8 • Complete participants • Participants-as-observers Gaining Entrée 10 • Observers-as-participants • Informal gatekeepers • Complete members • Formal gatekeepers • Active members • Evolving members • Complete observers How Researchers Position Themselves in the Field ... 11 For Discussion 23 Necessary Research Skills ... 12 Necessary Interpersonal and Social Skills 13 2 :: Naturalistic Observation What is Naturalistic Observation? :: 3 What is Naturalistic Observation? Qualitative research is a process of inquiry aimed at understanding human sense of information. But in the research context, we must learn to use all of behavior by building complex, holistic pictures of the social and cultural our senses, in order to accurately perceive the whole picture. As Adler and settings in which such behavior occurs. It does so by analyzing words rather Adler (1994, p. 378) put it, "Observation thus consists of gathering impressions than numbers, and by reporting the detailed views of the people who have of the surrounding world through all relevant human faculties." been studied. Such inquiry is conducted in settings where people naturally interact, as opposed to specially designed laboratories or clinical/experimental There are three main traditions of observation-based research within settings. Qualitative research seeks to understand the what, how, when, and qualitative social science: the non-reactive (or unobtrusive) mode, in which where of an event or an action in order to establish its meanings, concepts, the researcher avoids intervening in the action he or she is observing, definitions, characteristics, metaphors, symbols, and descriptions (Berg, 2004, the reactive mode, in which the researcher intervenes in the action, pp. 2-3; Creswell, 1998, pp. 14-16). but only in the role of outside observer, and the participant mode, in which the researcher strives to be an active member of the group under Prominent among the tools of qualitative research is observation, study. There are important sub-divisions of these three broad categories that characterized by Adler and Adler (1994) as "the fundamental base of all we will discuss in greater detail in a later section. At this point, however, we research methods" (p. 389). Quantitative researchers favor observing people in can say that all forms of qualitative observation-based inquiry are rooted in the highly controlled settings in which the researchers control all the variables researcher's preference for the "natural laboratory." It is assumed that involved, with the aim of experimentally testing specific hypotheses. By observation of people and events takes place in the settings in which they contrast, qualitative researchers use observation as a process by which people would naturally occur, and involves those who would naturally take part interacting in their natural settings are studied so that their behaviors and in them. The aim of qualitative observation research is to capture the essential words can be put into their proper context. The descriptive study of people in flow of everyday experience. As such, observation serves the purpose of their natural settings is sometimes referred to as ethnography or detecting patterns, concepts, trends, or categories that are taken as meaningful ethnographic research. Although hypotheses may be derived from naturalistic by people in the course of that everyday experience; it does not begin, as does observations, the observations themselves do not usually arise from a much quantitative inquiry, with patterns, concepts, trends, or categories that hypothesis-testing model of research. Qualitative researchers may refer to the emerge from theoretical formulations and take the form of specific hypotheses natural settings where their projects are conducted as "the field," and when that can be tested by measuring clearly operationalized variables. they leave the laboratory to do their research, they are said to be conducting fieldwork. Adler and Adler (1994, p. 378), for example, speak of the "'Click!' experience," which they describe as "a sudden, though minor, epiphany It should be emphasized from the outset that naturalistic observation as as to the emotional depth or importance of an event or a phenomenon." a tool of research is different from the kinds of casual "seeing" that we do in Real life, in other words, is full of surprises, even for the well trained and the course of everyday life, even if it in fact stems from those very ordinary life experienced researcher. Observation allows the researcher to register that skills. In order to be useful for research, observation must be systematic, surprise and then ponder the meaning behind the behavior that provoked it. It which means that it must be conducted carefully, with precise notation that is my belief that this necessary element of surprise and the experience of allows for the efficient and orderly retrieval, categorization, and analysis of epiphany best arise out of personal encounters; it is fine to read about the information (Adler and Adler, 1994). While qualitative researchers tend to research of others, but doing research for oneself is the best way to learn avoid predetermining categories of action that can be precisely measured, they ethnography. Therefore, in addition to the didactic presentations in the are as concerned as their quantitative colleagues with ensuring that following chapters, this book will feature some do-it-yourself suggestions. observation yields more than haphazard impressions. In everyday language, Those labeled "For Discussion" are meant to stimulate thinking about "observation" usually refers to the use of our visual sense to record and make the research process and are intended to be shared with some relevant peer group. 2 :: Naturalistic Observation What is Naturalistic Observation? :: 3 What is Naturalistic Observation? Qualitative research is a process of inquiry aimed at understanding human sense of information. But in the research context, we must learn to use all of behavior by building complex, holistic pictures of the social and cultural our senses, in order to accurately perceive the whole picture. As Adler and settings in which such behavior occurs. It does so by analyzing words rather Adler (1994, p. 378) put it, "Observation thus consists of gathering impressions than numbers, and by reporting the detailed views of the people who have of the surrounding world through all relevant human faculties." been studied. Such inquiry is conducted in settings where people naturally interact, as opposed to specially designed laboratories or clinical/experimental There are three main traditions of observation-based research within settings. Qualitative research seeks to understand the what, how, when, and qualitative social science: the non-reactive (or unobtrusive) mode, in which where of an event or an action in order to establish its meanings, concepts, the researcher avoids intervening in the action he or she is observing, definitions, characteristics, metaphors, symbols, and descriptions (Berg, 2004, the reactive mode, in which the researcher intervenes in the action, pp. 2-3; Creswell, 1998, pp. 14-16). but only in the role of outside observer, and the participant mode, in which the researcher strives to be an active member of the group under Prominent among the tools of qualitative research is observation, study. There are important sub-divisions of these three broad categories that characterized by Adler and Adler (1994) as "the fundamental base of all we will discuss in greater detail in a later section. At this point, however, we research methods" (p. 389). Quantitative researchers favor observing people in can say that all forms of qualitative observation-based inquiry are rooted in the highly controlled settings in which the researchers control all the variables researcher's preference for the "natural laboratory." It is assumed that involved, with the aim of experimentally testing specific hypotheses. By observation of people and events takes place in the settings in which they contrast, qualitative researchers use observation as a process by which people would naturally occur, and involves those who would naturally take part interacting in their natural settings are studied so that their behaviors and in them. The aim of qualitative observation research is to capture the essential words can be put into their proper context. The descriptive study of people in flow of everyday experience. As such, observation serves the purpose of their natural settings is sometimes referred to as ethnography or detecting patterns, concepts, trends, or categories that are taken as meaningful ethnographic research. Although hypotheses may be derived from naturalistic by people in the course of that everyday experience; it does not begin, as does observations, the observations themselves do not usually arise from a much quantitative inquiry, with patterns, concepts, trends, or categories that hypothesis-testing model of research. Qualitative researchers may refer to the emerge from theoretical formulations and take the form of specific hypotheses natural settings where their projects are conducted as "the field," and when that can be tested by measuring clearly operationalized variables. they leave the laboratory to do their research, they are said to be conducting fieldwork. Adler and Adler (1994, p. 378), for example, speak of the "'Click!' experience," which they describe as "a sudden, though minor, epiphany It should be emphasized from the outset that naturalistic observation as as to the emotional depth or importance of an event or a phenomenon." a tool of research is different from the kinds of casual "seeing" that we do in Real life, in other words, is full of surprises, even for the well trained and the course of everyday life, even if it in fact stems from those very ordinary life experienced researcher. Observation allows the researcher to register that skills. In order to be useful for research, observation must be systematic, surprise and then ponder the meaning behind the behavior that provoked it. It which means that it must be conducted carefully, with precise notation that is my belief that this necessary element of surprise and the experience of allows for the efficient and orderly retrieval, categorization, and analysis of epiphany best arise out of personal encounters; it is fine to read about the information (Adler and Adler, 1994). While qualitative researchers tend to research of others, but doing research for oneself is the best way to learn avoid predetermining categories of action that can be precisely measured, they ethnography. Therefore, in addition to the didactic presentations in the are as concerned as their quantitative colleagues with ensuring that following chapters, this book will feature some do-it-yourself suggestions. observation yields more than haphazard impressions. In everyday language, Those labeled "For Discussion" are meant to stimulate thinking about "observation" usually refers to the use of our visual sense to record and make the research process and are intended to be shared with some relevant peer group. 4 :: Naturalistic Observation What is Naturalistic Observation? :: 5 Why Do Qualitative Researchers Choose Naturalistic Observation as a Research Tool? Site Selection: Examples As we will see, good fieldwork is usually a matter of putting together The first step in a naturalistic observation inquiry is to select a site in which multiple data collection techniques so as to converge on a holistic picture of a to conduct fieldwork. In principle, qualitative observation-based research can setting. Observation is rarely conducted in isolation as the sole method of data be conducted wherever people interact in "natural" settings. The method collection. In the context, then, of a mixed-methods research project, originally came into its own in the context of research in small-scale and we can say that observational techniques are particularly well-suited to getting relatively homogeneous communities, although it soon came to be used in the lay of the land, so to speak. Observations therefore form the basis from well-defined enclave communities (defined by race, ethnicity, or social class) which we can develop questions for surveys or interviews. In that sense, they within larger societies. More recently, it has been applied to "communities of are essential to and inform all other forms of data collection in the field. interest," defined as groups of people who share some common factor, such as Using observation to get the lay of the land typically involves the study of: members of a support group for cancer survivors, who do not necessarily share all the other aspects of traditional culture beyond the one interest that brought • specific settings that may be clearly demarcated them together. It has even begun to be applied to "virtual communities" in physical space (e.g., a shopping mall, a church, a school) formed in cyberspace rather than in traditional physical space. In the latter or in virtual space (e.g., an on-line chat group) case, there may be legitimate questions raised about whether all the senses are truly engaged in the process of observation, but an adaptation of the method • events that feature well-defined sequences of activities longer and more is almost certainly called for, given the propensity of people nowadays to spend complex than single actions, that take place in specific locations, have a proportionately greater amounts of their time interacting on-line. defined purpose and meaning, involve more than one person, have a recognized history, and are repeated with some regularity (e.g., a university commencement program) Public spaces and opportunity-based site selection. • demographic factors, which might include, for example, observation of An observational research site may be one in which the researcher might housing or building materials, presence or absence of indoor plumbing, find him/herself anyway and which is considered "public" in a way that presence and number of intact windows, methods of garbage disposal, requires no special access; observations in public space have taken place and legal or illegal sources of electrical power to indicate socioeconomic in airports, city streets, shopping malls, medical waiting areas, and sporting differences between neighborhoods as well as observations of where events. On the other hand, a site may be one which the researcher might need people congregate under particular circumstances. permission to enter: a school classroom, a private event like a wedding or a funeral, or certain places of worship. It is conceivable that a site may not be "chosen" at all, but may present itself to the researcher through happenstance. Some years ago at an unusually long commencement ceremony, I amused myself by making note of facial expressions and body language that seemed to differentiate faculty from students as we progressed (at a glacial pace) through the event. I even wrote a paper about my observations, although the explicit threat of cruel reprisals from my colleagues kept me from ever publishing it. 4 :: Naturalistic Observation What is Naturalistic Observation? :: 5 Why Do Qualitative Researchers Choose Naturalistic Observation as a Research Tool? Site Selection: Examples As we will see, good fieldwork is usually a matter of putting together The first step in a naturalistic observation inquiry is to select a site in which multiple data collection techniques so as to converge on a holistic picture of a to conduct fieldwork. In principle, qualitative observation-based research can setting. Observation is rarely conducted in isolation as the sole method of data be conducted wherever people interact in "natural" settings. The method collection. In the context, then, of a mixed-methods research project, originally came into its own in the context of research in small-scale and we can say that observational techniques are particularly well-suited to getting relatively homogeneous communities, although it soon came to be used in the lay of the land, so to speak. Observations therefore form the basis from well-defined enclave communities (defined by race, ethnicity, or social class) which we can develop questions for surveys or interviews. In that sense, they within larger societies. More recently, it has been applied to "communities of are essential to and inform all other forms of data collection in the field. interest," defined as groups of people who share some common factor, such as Using observation to get the lay of the land typically involves the study of: members of a support group for cancer survivors, who do not necessarily share all the other aspects of traditional culture beyond the one interest that brought • specific settings that may be clearly demarcated them together. It has even begun to be applied to "virtual communities" in physical space (e.g., a shopping mall, a church, a school) formed in cyberspace rather than in traditional physical space. In the latter or in virtual space (e.g., an on-line chat group) case, there may be legitimate questions raised about whether all the senses are truly engaged in the process of observation, but an adaptation of the method • events that feature well-defined sequences of activities longer and more is almost certainly called for, given the propensity of people nowadays to spend complex than single actions, that take place in specific locations, have a proportionately greater amounts of their time interacting on-line. defined purpose and meaning, involve more than one person, have a recognized history, and are repeated with some regularity (e.g., a university commencement program) Public spaces and opportunity-based site selection. • demographic factors, which might include, for example, observation of An observational research site may be one in which the researcher might housing or building materials, presence or absence of indoor plumbing, find him/herself anyway and which is considered "public" in a way that presence and number of intact windows, methods of garbage disposal, requires no special access; observations in public space have taken place and legal or illegal sources of electrical power to indicate socioeconomic in airports, city streets, shopping malls, medical waiting areas, and sporting differences between neighborhoods as well as observations of where events. On the other hand, a site may be one which the researcher might need people congregate under particular circumstances. permission to enter: a school classroom, a private event like a wedding or a funeral, or certain places of worship. It is conceivable that a site may not be "chosen" at all, but may present itself to the researcher through happenstance. Some years ago at an unusually long commencement ceremony, I amused myself by making note of facial expressions and body language that seemed to differentiate faculty from students as we progressed (at a glacial pace) through the event. I even wrote a paper about my observations, although the explicit threat of cruel reprisals from my colleagues kept me from ever publishing it.