N93-/G863 -80 The Influence of Culture on Space /L/o ,-/' Developments Philip R. Harris For a quarter of this 20th century, National Aeronautics and Space humankind has been successfully Administration and the allied extending its presence into space. aerospace industry have The landing of men on the Moon in advanced human culture. The 1969 during the Apollo 11 mission next steps of space technology broke our perceptual blinders--we into the 21st century will were no longer earthbound as transform that culture. our ancestors had thought for centuries. Perhaps the real home of the human species lies Culture--A Coping on the high frontier. Just as the Strategy application of fire and tools changed our primitive forebears, Culture is a unique human so space technology and its invention. Our species created accomplishments force modern it to increase our ability to cope men and women to change their with the environment, to facilitate image of our species. We now daily living. Thus, consciously and are free to explore and use the unconsciously, groups transmit it to universe to improve the quality of following generations. The concept human existence. Our new self- of culture provides a useful tool for concept as "Earth people" may understanding human behavior and energize global efforts toward its relationship to a particular space development. The physical environment. technological achievements of NASA and other national space Human beings created culture, agencies, along with private-sector or their social environment, in space undertakings, contribute the form of practices, customs, mightily toward the actualization and traditions for survival and of our human potential. The development. Culture is the exploration and exploitation of lifestyle that a particular group space resources are altering our of people passes along to their human culture here on Earth. descendants. Often in the process, awareness of the origin of Such vision is necessary to put contributions to this fund of wisdom the endeavors of space scientists is lost. Subsequent generations and technologists into a larger are conditioned to accept these context. During the past 25 years, "truths" about accepted behavior the feats of people in the in a society; norms, values, ethics, 189 and taboos evolve. Culture is (12) nonterrestrial raw materials; communicable knowledge which is (13) absence of many Earth both learned and unlearned, hazards (storms, floods, which is both overt and covert in earthquakes, volcanoes, lightning, practice, of which we may have unpredictable temperatures and either conscious or unconscious humidity, corrosion, pollution, etc.); understanding. On this planet, (14) a potentially enjoyable, human culture has been remarkable healthful, and stimulating for its diversity, so that those who environment for humans (Von would operate successfully in an Puttkamer 1985). international arena have to learn skills for dealing effectively with As the director of the California cultural differences. The point is Space Institute, James R. Arnold, that culture is a powerful influence reminded us in a Los Angeles on human behavior as people adapt Times editorial (November I7, to unusual circumstances (Harris 1983), "Space is out there waiting and Moran 1987). for us to try out new ideas." In his view, the space station and other The program manager for long- space bases to follow will give range studies at NASA's Office of humans the time and place to Space Flight has listed some of the learn, to experiment, to work, and unusual circumstances on the high even to playl In fact, the Soviets frontier that might influence the have already begun to do these creation of aspace cuffure: things on their Mir space station. (1) weightlessness; (2) easy gravity The formation of space culture has control; (3) absence of atmosphere been under way now for over (unlimited high vacuum); (4) a 25 years, and itis progressing comprehensive overview o_the rapidly. Earth's surface and atmc_Sphere (for communication, observation, Until now, only a handful of humans power transmission, etc.); have actually lived in space. (5) isolation from the Earth's Whether Americans or Russians or biosphere (for hazardous their allies, these space pioneers processes); (6) an infinite natural were usually from a somewhat reservoir for disposal of wastes homogeneous background. Until and safe storageof radioactiv_ the decade of the 80s, they came products; (7) freely available light, from subcultures like test pilots or heat, and power; (8) super-cold the military and were mostly male. temperatures (infinite heat sink); But, if we project to the next (9) open areas for storage and 25 years, it is obvious that the structures; (10) a variety of non- population in space will be diffuse (directed) types of increasingly multicultural and radiation; (11) a magnetic field; heterogeneous. Both Soviet and 190 American space flights, for example species development seem to now include representatives of occur under such circumstances. "allied" countries--cosmonauts or Perhaps this will be true of the astronauts from "foreign" cultures. human race as we shift our Just as on Earth there are human attention from Earth-based to experiences that cut across most space-based resources. As the cultures, it would appear that living Apollo missions demonstrated, the in space will become such a very size, scope, and complexity of "cultural universal." a space undertaking may be the catalyst for unleashing our potential As we slowly extend our presence and raising our culture to a new up there and establish human level. This may be the first time in space communities in ever human history that people can increasing numbers, there will be consciously design the kind of an urgent need for cultural synergy, culture they wish to create in an be iton a space station or at a alien environment slated for lunar base. Such synergy exploration and exploitation. The optimizes the differences between movement of people from their people, fosters cooperation, and home planet to the "high ground" directs energy toward goals and will transform both our culture and problem-solving in collaboration the human person. The editors with others (Moran and Harris of Interstellar Migration and the 1982). The very complexity of Human Experience remind us that transporting people into space has "Migration into space may be a stimulated the development of revolutionary step for humanity, but matrix or team management in the it is one that represents a continuity space program. Similarly, the with our past" (Finney and Jones creation of space habitats and 1985). colonies in a zero- or low-gravity environment will require synergistic Space planners can benefit strategies of leadership. immensely by utilizing the data base and insights of behavioral Current research in evolution scientists (Connors, Harrison, indicates that harsh environments and Akins 1985). Cultural often result in innovation by anthropologists, for instance, offer species. The pattern of the past a variety of approaches to cultural reveals that creatures are better analysis. One method is called a at inventing and surviving systems analysis; here "systems" when challenged by a difficult refers to an ordered assemblage of environment than they are when parts which form a whole. Thus, not challenged (Harrison and in planning space communities, Connors 1984). The big jumps in one might utilize eight or more 191 systems, such as illustrated in community might be organized). figure 11. That is, the new space In Living Systems (1978), James culture can be studied in terms of Grier Miller has proposed a master systems that are used to indicate paradigm for integration of both relationships--for association, or biological and social systems. social grouping; for economic and Dr. Miller is currently engaged in political purposes; for education research to apply his eight-level and training; for health and conceptualization of twenty recreation; for leadership and subsystems to analysis of the guidance (this last being the cultural needs of future space transcendent or philosophical communities (see his paper in this system around which the space volume). HUMAN FACTORS (Medical, health/ (Emotional, work 1w.ellPnHesYsS)ICAL 2b.ehaPvSiYorC)HOLOGICAL SPACE (iHnusmtitauntionssy)stems/ DEVELOP- (CopingJlivlng 3. SOCIOLOGICAL 4p.attCerUnLsT)URAL MENTS (Economic resources, (Public/government profits, costs) support and systems) 5. FINANCIAL 6. POLITICAL 8. EDUCATIONAL_ (Nat ional/Inter national 7irne.tgeurLplaEltaGinoAenLtsa)ry laws, (;erlelPor;mtaetn°tn/t;o_an_gt _;rI JJl education inorbit) V" (Use of information (Organizing/ IIII technology/systems; administering/ I _ interpersonal/group Figure 11 loading macroprojects)V [ interactions) Systems forAnalysis ofa New Space Culture 192 Another way of preparing for a new 1985). If the space population is cultural experience is by examining to be increased and broadened, so typical characteristics of culture. should the composition of space Some of these for a space planners and decision-makers community might be the following: (as happened in miniature with the multidisciplinary group of (1) Sense of self participants at the 1984 NASA summer study at the California (2) Communication Space Institute.) (3) Dress (4) Food Organizational Culture in (5) Time consciousness NASA and the Aerospace Industry (6) Relationships (7) Values Culture has already unconsciously affected our future in space (8) Beliefs through the organizational cultures (9) Mental processes of the chief developers of space technology. A distinctive culture (10) Work habits has emerged in the past 25 years within NASA itself, and this in turn These ten classes offer a simple has influenced the corporate model not only for assessing an cultures of NASA's principal existing culture but also for contractors. NASA has been an planning a new one, such as a atypical government agency that culture in space. Although there has been innovative in both are other characteristics for cultural technology and management, analysis (such as rewards), analysis as well as in its relations with of the listed characteristics would contractors (Harris 1985). be sufficient to prepare for a startup space community, such as that of When NASA was established as a the crew at a space station or a civilian Government entity in 1958, lunar outpost. it inherited cultural biases from the several organizations from which it Because culture is so multifaceted was derived. It acquired many of and pervasive in human behavior, the traditional characteristics of we cannot simply impose one Federal public administration, being form of Earth culture on a space subject to the constraints of Civil community. Nor can space Service regulations, annual budget technologists continue to ignore battles, congressional and lobby the implications of culture (Hall pressures, and changing public 193 opinion(Levine1982).Sinceitwas academies and associations, such charteredtobemainlyaresearch as the American Institute of anddevelopmenotrganization, Aeronautics and Astronautics NASAwasdominatedbythe (AIAA). The ongoing history of subcultureosfthescientific, NASA manifests continuing technologicaal,ndengineering alterations of its culture from fields.Itsinterfacewiththemilitary crises (e.g., the Challenger anditsastronauptersonneflromthe disaster) and reactions (e.g., ArmedForcesprovidedanother congressional investigations) streamofculturailnfluence.The and new inputs from Presidential introductioonftheGermanrocket commissions (e.g., the Rogers specialistsunderWernhevron Commission report, 1986). Braunprovidedfurthercultural input,ashavenumerousacademics Just as groups of people develop andtheiruniversitiesb,eginning national or macrocultures, so too withRobertGoddardofClarke do human institutions develop Universityandcomingrightdown organizational or microcultures. toparticipantisnthelatestNASA NASA as an organization is a summerstudyonthecampusofthe collection of humans who have UniversityofCaliforniaS,anDiego. set for this system objectives, missions, expectations, obligations, Currentlyt,heorganizational and roles. It has a unique culture cultureofNASAisbeingaltered which is influencing the course of byitsinteract!onwsithother space development. The NASA nationaslpace agencies, such as culture begins by setting those of Japan and Europe, and organizational boundaries and even by its successful cooperation powerfully affects the morale, with the Soviets in the Apollo/ performance, and productivity of Soyuz mission. To broaden its its employees. Eventually, this constituency further, NASA is influence spreads to contractors attempting to reach out to and suppliers. For example, as nonaerospace business and NASA began to plan for its next involve companies in space 25 years, Administrator James industrialization; to expand its Beggs circulated a statement cooperative efforts with other of goals and objectives to Government departments, from administrators and center directors. weather and transportation to This statement from the first commerce and defense; to engage item enunciated demonstrates a in joint endeavors with national future trend in NASA culture: 194 GOAL: Provide our people a To analyze this NASA culture, one creative environment and the can take the ten characteristics best of facilities, support listed in the previous section or services, and management one can use a diagnostic support so they can perform instrument (see "Organizational with excellence NASA's Culture Survey Instrument," research, development, appendix A in Harris 1983). mission, and operational Perhaps figure 12best illustrates responsibilities. the possible dimensions of this NASA culture. (Government Executive, October 1983, p. 5) EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT Products, services, Survival, trained personnel, growth, and Communication/ and public information development language Decision-making/ problem-solving INPUT Wfacoirlkitiesspace/ principles OUTPUT Rules/ regul; rshipl Control/ styles reporting Work appearance/ attendance RoleS/ rehltionships Norms/ standards Compensetion/rewards Needs, expectations, Figure 12 information, and Personnel practices resources Tools/equlpment Aspects of NASA's Organizational Culture 195 The fact that NASA successfully NASA is to implement the vision completed its Apollo lunar missions outlined by the National Commission would seem to indicate that its on Space (1986) in its bold report, organizational culture was adequate. Pioneering the Space Frontier. Since then, budget cuts, loss of talented personnel, and the As an example of the way NASA Challenger accident have pointed culture affects its space planning up the need for cultural renewal. In and management, consider the 1986, as a result of the report of well-documented fact that the The Presidential Commission on agency is leery of the behavioral the Space Shuttle Challenger sciences (Harrison 1986, Hall Accident, reorganization got under 1985, Douglas 1984). Since way following the appointment, the organization is dominated once again, of James C. Fletcher by a technical mindset, it is as NASA Administrator. uncomfortable with social scientists and their potential contributions. The issue of concern now is And yet the agency culture whether the agency's cultural focus changes, as witnessed by the will enable NASA to provide global publication of the June I988 report leadership in the peaceful and of the NASA Life Sciences Strategic commercial development of Planning Study Committee, entitled space. As NASA struggles with Exploring the Living Universe. A "organization shock," external Strategy for Space Life Sciences, forces demand that priority be and by requests for increased given to military and scientific spending on the behavioral missions, leaving commercial sciences in the FY89 budget. satellite launchings and industrialization to the private As human presence in space is sector. Other international space expanded with long-duration agencies--in Europe, Japan, and missions, NASA planners will have even the Third World--compete to confront issues of interpersonal with NASA in launch capability. and group living which until recently Confusion reigns over replacement they avoided (Connors, Harrison, of the fourth orbiter, development and Akins 1985). In interviews by of alternative launch capability, and flight surgeon Douglas (1984) with space station plans, so that NASA astronauts, the latter expressed is an organization in profound regrets that they and their families transition, requiring transformational did not benefit more from the leadership (Tichy and Devanna services of psychiatrists and 1986). This is especially true if psychologists, particularly with 196 referencetogroupdynamics created its share of space leaders, training.Oberg(1985)reveals legends, myths, beliefs, symbols, that,ontheotherhand,inthe visions, and goals--the stuff of cultureoftheirspaceprogramt,he meaningful organizational cultures. Sovietsaremorepronetoutilize But, as Peters and Waterman suchspecialistsI.nfact,that reminded us, authorquotestheSovietheadof spacebiomedicineD,r.Oleg In the very institutions in Gazenkoa,sstatingthatthe which culture is so dominant, limitationtsohumanlivingin the highest levels of true spacearenotphysicablut autonomy occur. The psychologica(pl.25);Obergalso culture regulates rigorously notesthatSvetlanaSavitskaya, the few variables that do thesecondwomaninspace, count, and provides suggestedthatapsychologisbte meaning. But within those includedonlong-duratiofnlightsto qualitative values (and in observefirsthandtheindividual almost all other dimensions), stressandgroupdynamics(p.32). people are encouraged to stick out, to innovate. My purpose here is simply to bring to the reader's consciousness the (Peters and Waterman 1982) reality that NASA does have a culture and that that culture Thus, if NASA is to provide the pervades its decisions, plans, world with the technological operations, and activities. One springboard into the 21st century, might even take the chapter these questions are in order: headings of the volume Corporate Cultures and use them to assess (1) Does NASA now have the NASA's values, heroes, rites and necessary innovative and rituals, communications, and tribes entrepreneurial culture to (Deal and Kennedy 1982). provide leadership for its own renewal and the enormous human As reported in a variety of contemporary management books, expansion into space? from the one just mentioned to Or is it trapped inside In Search of Excellence, research both bureaucratic and technical cultures that supports the conclusion that inhibit its contributions to excellent organizations have strong functional cultures. Since the next stage of space its founding, NASA surely has development? 197 (2) Has NASA adequately being reversed with demand for redefined and projected strong headquarters management its present organizational and inauguration of a new technical image and purpose to management information system. its own personnel, the To meet the space challenges of Congress, and the public the future, NASA would do well to at large? Or is it suffering consider planned changes in its again (as it did after three own organizational culture. astronauts were killed in Technological, economic, political, the Apollo capsule fire) and social changes by 2010 will from an identity crisis and demand such adjustments, and a dysfunctional culture? many present organizational structures, roles, operations, As NASA moves beyond its and arrangements (such as a institutional beginnings into the centralized mission control) will next stage of organizational be obsolete. development, maturation would seem to require transformation. Emergence of a New Perhaps the present structure is Space Culture no longer suitable for this growt h process and it needs to become a more autonomous agency. (Does The habitation of Skylab, Spacelab, the Tennessee Valley Authority Salyut, and Mir by a few dozen provide a moclel for this structural humans is the precedent not only change?) Perhaps it should be for space station life but also for part of a global space agency that space culture. Whether astronauts represents both public and private or cosmonauts, they were humans space interests-first in the free- learning to cope with a new enterprise nations and someday environment marked by a lack even in the Cornmunist bloc. of gravity. For most, it appears Perhaps NASA needs to enter into to have been an enjoyable new relationships and ventures experience, despite minor with contractors, whether in the inconveniences caused by space aerospace industry or inother sickness or excessive demands multinational industries. from experiment controllers on the ground. Whether inside or outside It was encouraging to know that the space suits and capsules, the 1984 NASA administrator these people learned to adapt and advocated decentralization in the they proved that human life in organization, putting operational space is possible, even practical. responsibility at the center level. These innovators simply However, in 1986 the trend was transported into space the 198