Narcissism, Physical Self-Efficacy and Exercise Addiction: A Comparative Study of Runners and Aerobics Exercisers. Zia Leask Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts (Clinical Psychology) in the Department of Psychology, University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg December 1997 The author hereby declares, that unless specifically indicated to the contrary, this study is the r~sult of her own work. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Although many people have contributed to this research, there are some who deserve special mention and my heartfelt gratitude: * My supervisor, Professor Clive Basson, who, despite being on sabbatical during 1997, gave up his valuable time with never-ending energy andenthusiasm. His approach to supervision for this research project consistently maintained the delicate balance between being both challenging and supportive. I am truly grateful for all his assistance. * Dr Bruce Faulds, for his enormous contribution to the data input and statistical analysis. His tireless generosity with his time, continual patience and his refreshing sense ofhumour all helped to make this part of the research an enjoyable and interesting task. Thank you. * My parents, whose immense support in so many different ways cannot begin to be measured. Thanks are also extended to my mother for the time she spent proof-reading this document. * My sister, Kerry, and her husband, Rory, for periodically and generously providing me with accommodation in Natal. Special thanks to Kerry for the support and encouragement she gave me. * My friends, whose support over the months, helped bolster me through the difficult times. Each provided me with assistance in their own special way. Thank you Avril, Darryl and Suzanne, Lee, Marcela, Nadine, Paul, Peta and Sharon. My gratitude to you goes beyond that which words can express. * Avril, for her precious time she gave up to assist with the graphs; Sharon, for the unselfish use of her printer for the final document and Lee for the loan of books and the use ofher printer for the questionnaires. * To the subjects who participated in this research so willingly. Special thanks to DickWalsh of Rand Athletics Club, Jane Ewing of Randburg Harriers and Peter Lombard of Sandton Health and Racquet Club whose assistance made the recruitment ofexercisers much easier. Further thanks is extended to the number of other people who assisted in distributing questionnaires. (i) ABSTRACT Narcissism and physical self-efficacy and exercise commitment were investigated in 'addicted' and 'non-addicted' runners (n = 112) and aerobics exercisers (n = 57) and compared to a control group of non-exercisers (n = 42). Runners and aerobics exercisers were assigned to an 'addicted' or 'non-addicted' group using Hailey and Bailey's (1982) Negative Addiction Scale. All subjects completedbiographical questionnaires, theNarcissisticPersonalityInventory (NPI) and the Physical Self-Efficacy Scale (PSE). Although both narcissism and physical self-efficacy were found to play a significant role inexercise adoption, narciss\ism was the only significantvariable when comparing 'addicted' and 'non-addicted' exercisers. Differences between the runners and aerobics exercisers were found with the aerobics exercisers exhibiting higher narcissistic tendencies than the runners. The runners were assigned to one of four quadrants based on their level of commitment and addiction to running and the Perceived Physical Ability subscale ofthe PSE and the Self-Sufficiency subscale ofthe NPI produced significant differences between the four quadrants. Taken together, the results suggest that addicted exercisers have the tendency to exhibit narcissistic traits, however the interaction with physical self-efficacy is equivocal. The findings are discussed with reference to relevant personality theory and implications for future research in this area. (ii) TABLE OF CONTENTS Page CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1. EXERCISE AND ITS BENEFITS 1 1.2. RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY 2 CHAPTER TWO: EXERCISE ADDICTION 5 2.1. INTRODUCTION 5 2.2. EXERCISE AS A POSITIVE ADDICTION 5 2.3. EXERCISE AS A NEGATIVE ADDICTION 6 2.4. EXERCISE ADDICTION AS A PROCESS 6 2.4.1. Healthy-neurotic Exercisers 7 2.4.2. Compulsive Exercisers 7 2.4.3. Addicted Exercisers 8 2.5. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EXERCISE ADDICTION 8 2.6. EMPIRICAL MEASUREMENTS OF EXERCISE ADDICTION 9 2.7. THE CAUSE OF EXERCISE ADDICTION 11 2.7.1. Physiological Perspective: The Endorphin Hypothesis 12 2.7.2. Psychological Perspective: The Distraction Hypothesis 13 2.7.3. Personality Determinants of Sport Participation and Motivation 14 2.7.4. Theoretical Models in Exercise Research 15 2.7.5. Commitment to Running 16 2.8. SUMMARY 20 CHAPTER THREE: SELF-EFFICACY 21 3.1. INTRODUCTION 21 3.2. SELF-EFFICACY THEORY 21 3.2.1. Outcome Expectations 21 3.2.2. Self-Efficacy 22 3.2.3. Antecedents of Self-Efficacy 23 3.3. SELF-EFFICACY AND EXERCISE ADOPTION AND ADHERENCE 24 3.4. SELF-EFFICACY AND ADDICTION 25 (iii) 3.5. EMPIRICAL MEASUREMENT OF SELF-EFFICACY 27 3.5.1. Level of Self-Efficacy 27 27 3.5.2. Strength of Self-Efficacy 3.5.3. Generality of Self-Efficacy 28 3.5.4. The Physical Self-Efficacy Scale 28 3.6. SUMMARY 29 CHAPTER FOUR: NARCISSISM 30 4.1. INTRODUCTION 30 4.2. THE MYTH OF NARCISSUS 30 4.3. A BRIEF HISTORY OF NARCISSISM 31 4.3.1. Freud and Narcissism 31 4.3.2. Kohut and Narcissism 32 4.4. NARCISSISM AND SELF-ESTEEM 33 4.5. NARCISSISM AND EXERCISE 34 4.6. NARCISSISM AND ADDICTION 36 4.7. EMPIRICAL MEASUREMENT OF NARCISSISM 37 4.7.1. The Narcissistic Personality Inventory 38 4.8. SUMMARY 40 CHAPTER FIVE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 41 5.1. INTRODUCTION 41 5.2. RESEARCH DESIGN 41 5.3. THE SAMPLE AND PROCEDURE 42 5.3.1. Group One - Runners 42 5.3.2. Group Two - Aerobics Exercisers 43 5.3.3. Group Three - Non-Exercisers 43 5.4. PSYCHOMETRIC INSTRUMENTS 44 5.4.1. Biographical Information 44 5.4.2. Physical Self-Efficacy Scale 45 5.4.3. Narcissistic Personality Inventory 47 5.4.4. The Negative Addiction Scale 49 5.4.5. Exercise Commitment 51 5.5. STATISTICAL PROCEDURES 52 5.6. FORMAL HYPOTHESES 53 5.7. SUMMARY 54 (iv) CHAPTER SIX: RESULTS 55 6.1. INTRODUCTION 55 6.2. SECTION ONE 55 6.2.1. Demographic Information 55 6.2.2. Length of Time Subjects had Exercised and Exercise Frequency 57 6.2.3. Prevalence of Eating Disorders 57 6.3. SECTION TWO 58 6.3.1. Descriptive Statistics 58 6.3.1.1. The Physical Self-Efficacy Scale 58 6.3.1.2. The Narcissistic Personality Inventory 59 6.3.2. Two-Way Analysis of Covariance, by Group and Sex 60 6.3.2.1. NPI: Effects for Narcissism by Group 61 6.3.2.2. NPI: Effects for Narcissism by Sex 63 6.3.2.3. PSE: Effects for Physical Self-Efficacy by Group 64 6.3.2.4. PSE: Effects for Physical Self-Efficacy by Sex 64 6.4. SECTION THREE 66 6.4.1. The Negative Addiction Scale 66 6.4.2. Sex, Age and Addiction 67 6.4.3. Three-Way Analysis of Covariance by Sex, Group and Addiction 68 6.4.3.1. NPI: Effects for Narcissism by Addiction 68 6.4.3.2. NPI: Effects for Narcissism by Sex 69 6.4.3.3. NPI: Effects for Narcissism by Group 69 6.4.3.4. Two-Way Interactions on Measures of Narcissism 70 6.4.3.5. Hypothesis 5: Physical Self-Efficacy and Addiction 73 6.4.3.6. Exploratory Hypothesis 6: Physical Self-Efficacy by Group 73 6.5. SECTION FOUR 75 6.5.1. Exercise Commitment 75 6.5.2. Multiple Regression Analysis 75 6.6. SECTION FIVE 77 6.6.1. Exploratory Hypothesis 7: Physical Self-Efficacy and Narcissism 79 Between the Four Quadrants of Runners 6.6.1.1. One-Way Analysis of Variance Between Quadrants of 79 Runners 6.6.1.2. Discriminant Function Analysis for the Four Quadrants of 80 Runners 6.7. SUMMARY OF RESULTS 81 (v) CHAPTER SEVEN: DISCUSSION 83 7.I. INTRODUCTION 83 7.2. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE GROUPS ON MEASURES OF PHYSICAL 83 SELF-EFFICACY AND NARCISSISM 7.2.I. Physical Self-Efficacy and Exercise 83 7.2.1.1. Sex Differences 84 7.2.2. Narcissism and Exercise 85 7.2.2.1. Sex Differences 87 7.3. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE'ADDICTED' AND 'NON-ADDICTED' 88 GROUPS ON MEASURES OF PHYSICAL SELF-EFFICACY AND NARCISSISM 7.3.1. Physical Self-Efficacy and Exercise Addiction 89 7.3.2. Narcissism and Exercise Addiction 90 7.4. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FOUR QUADRANTS OF RUNNERS ON 91 MEASURES OF PHYSICAL SELF-EFFICACY AND NARCISSISM 7.4.1. Physical Self-Efficacy and Running Addiction and Commitment 92 7.4.2. Narcissism and Running Addiction and Commitment 92 7.5. PREDICTORS OF EXERCISE ADDICTION 92 7.6. RESPONSE RATE 93 7.7. DEMOGRAPHICS 94 7.7.I. Sex 94 7.7.2. Age 94 7.8. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS 94 7.8.I. The Narcissistic Personality Inventory 94 7.8.2. The Physical Self-Efficacy Scale 95 7.8.3. The Negative Addiction Scale 95 7.9. LIMITATIONS OF THE PRESENT STUDY 96 7.9.I. Research Design 96 7.9.2. Research Sample 96 7.9.3. Psychometric Instruments 96 7.10. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH 98 CHAPTER EIGHT: SUMMARYAND CONCLUSION 99 REFERENCES 102 ("i) APPENDICES APPENDIX 1. Explanatory Letter APPENDIX 2. Biographical Questionnaire for Runners APPENDIX 3. Biographical Questionnaire for Aerobics Exercisers APPENDIX 4. Biographical Questionnaire for Non-Exercisers APPENDIX 5. The Physical Self-Efficacy Scale APPENDIX 6. The Narcissistic Personality Inventory APPENDIX 7. DSM (APA, 1980; 1987; 1994) Diagnostic Criteria for Narcissistic Personality Disorder APPENDIX 8. The Negative Addiction Scale for Runners APPENDIX 9. The Negative Addiction Scale for Aerobics Exercisers APPENDIX 10. Pearson Product-Moment Correlations for Age, Sex, Total PSE and its subscales and the Total NPI and its subscales for the Total Population APPENDIX 11. Pearson Product-Moment Correlations for Addiction, Age, Sex, Total PSE and its subscales and the Total NPI and its subscales for the Runners and Aerobics Exercisers only. APPENDIX12. Means and Standard Deviations offor the Physical Self-Efficacy Scale ofthe Total Sample Population and by Group APPENDIX 13. Means and Standard Deviations of for the Narcissistic Personality Inventory of the Total Sample Population and by Group (vii) 1. CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION "1have run since infancy ... It's thepassion ofmy life. Running as long aspossible - I've made that into a sport. I have no othersecrets. Without running I wouldn't be able to live. " (Waldemar Cierpinski, 1980, cited in Weinberg & Gould, 1995, p.369). 1.1. EXERCISE AND ITS BENEFITS: Although the Greek philosophy - mens sana in corpore sano - (a healthy mind in a healthy body) has been around for thousands of years (Sachs, 1991), it is only over the past two decades that much attention has been placed on aerobic exercise! as a therapeutic means ofpromoting improved _. physical and psychological health and well-being. ..... Ithas become a widely reported phenomenonthat regular participation in physical, aerobic exercise results in physiological benefits (Kirkcaldy & Shephard, 1990). Exercise is universally accepted as a prophylactic agent and therapeutic aid in many different physical illnesses (e.g. heart ~_»__....~..... ~....,~.=",,,.,;.,,....:o<:.:O--~- '~~tI"'~--~-=:' "'"_"">e.o ~ ---~ conditions, diabetes and arthritis) (De la Torre, 1995) and has been shown to increase protection -.' ,._'#....,=.._"".._~..,,""~ " >"" ""..'..1. agai~st~~~~~;;~yheaiidisea~e, provide protective benefits against colon cancer in men and certain ""V~_$W''TFWF''S~5I:iiii:~~~~......;i\ .....::::..<t"".". reproductive cancers in women (Marcus, Bock, Pinto & Clark, 1996). Physical activity is further recommended in prevention and treatmentofobesit~ndfacilitates weight maintenance in men and -----..---' -- --._--------------.-- ...,.'!C',....;'_'··..1".....",,=,...-.•,..-". '..... -'''«'-,.' ".~.~.,,"''1''_',....,....~.{,~bo·'#"'~~'t;<;:~I!l".""'~"'r-~->r'"'"''''~ women. It is also believed to help pr~v~"!.1! other disea~lLas~Osjeop'o[Q§.isjn p.2~menopausal .. """"- - ..... ~, ,-""--~ women (Marcus et al., 1996). The American College of Sports Medicine have suggested that in ~<.-~,a.;;. order to receive these benefits from exercise, exercise must be performed for at least 20 to 30 minutes, 3 to 5 times a week at 60% to 85% of maximal heart rate (Weinberg & Gould, 1995). Exercise is also thought to alleviate psychological distress and engender positive psychological health (Kirkcaldy & Shephard, 1990). A long list of psychological benefits has been postulated, someofwhich includepositive mood and perceived health shifts, increased sense ofself-sufficiency and personal adjustment, enhanced body-image and improved self-concept. Cognitive and perceptual processing is facilitated, type A behaviour is reduced, stress management skills are "AerobicExerciseisphysicalactivity thatincreasestheactivityofpulmonaryandcardiovascularsystems. I During aerobic exercise the body uses and transports oxygen to the working muscles to maintain the activity" (Weinberg & Gould, 1995, p.363). Itincludes activities suchas briskwalking, running, swimming, aerobics (step and dance), cross-country skiing and rowing. 2. improved and overall psychological performance is bolstered. Regular exercise is also associated with reduced anxiety and depression (Weinberg & Gould, 1995) and furthermore has been recommended as a therapeutic tool in the treatment thereof (Kirkcaldy & Shephard, 1990). Although a cause and effect explanation and the mechanism through which the psychological benefits may occur has not yet been defined, various explications have been attempted. According to Kirkcaldy & Shephard (1990), the psychological benefits from exercise may be caused directly or indirectly. In terms of a direct cause, the benefits may be a result of the secretion of mood altering chemicals which increases the individual's level of arousal and decreases autonomic reactions to stress. They also posit that exercise may have a less direct benefit in that it increases a sense of self-efficacy, enhances body image and reduces fatigue. Their final explanation for the benefits of exercise on mental well-being is an indirect one where exercise may increase social contacts, develop posi~ive expectations and offer opportunities for distraction (Kirkcaldy & Shephard, 1990). 1.2. RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY: Despite the reported benefits of exercise, there can be negative aspects associated with long-term participation inexercise, specifically running, which havereceived less attention(Thornton& Scott, 1995). According to Rodin (1992, cited in ibid.), many exercisers may exercise too much and consequently reverse the positive effects of the activity resulting in fatigue, muscle soreness and negative psychological sequelae such as depression. These consequences may lead to a high rate of 'drop out' from exercise or in extreme forms, 'burnout', which are analogous to the effects of prolonged stress. As a result, this type ofover-exercising has been conceptualised as a behavioural dependence or addiction, and various studies have been conducted on what constitutes and causes exercise addiction. Owing to a growth towards a more technology-based culture, with consequent time for leisure, exercise for pleasure or perceived health benefits appears to be on the rise in our society. With an increasing preoccupation with health, exercise is fast becoming an integral part of our Western Euro/American culture. According to De la Torre (1995) latest issues of popular magazines confirm the continued growth in interest and preoccupation with exercise. As a result, he believes that clinicians may find more cases amongst their patients for whom exercise may represent a measure of psychopathology. If not aware of the potential complications exercise might portray, the psychotherapist may naively conclude that exercise in the patient's lifestyle is a good trait and therefore, may notexplore the frequency, discipline, devotion and need for exercise. Furthermore,