TEAM LinG ffirs.qxd 9/27/2005 10:40 AM Page i NANOTECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS TO TELECOMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING ffirs.qxd 9/27/2005 10:40 AM Page ii ffirs.qxd 9/27/2005 10:40 AM Page iii NANOTECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS TO TELECOMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING Daniel Minoli Managing Director Leading-Edge Networks Incorporated A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION ffirs.qxd 9/27/2005 10:40 AM Page iv Copyright © 2006 by John Wiley & Sons,Inc. All rights reserved. Published by John Wiley & Sons,Inc.,Hoboken,New Jersey. Published simultaneously in Canada. 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TK5103.M474 2005 621.382–dc22 2004063825 Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ffirs.qxd 9/27/2005 10:40 AM Page v For Anna And for my Father and Mother ffirs.qxd 9/27/2005 10:40 AM Page vi ftoc.qxd 9/28/2005 11:05 AM Page vii CONTENTS Preface xv About the Author xix 1. Nanotechnology and Its Business Applications 1 1.1 Introduction and Scope 1 1.1.1 Introduction to the Nanoscale 1 1.1.2 Plethora of Potential Applications 7 1.1.3 Challenges and Opportunities 13 1.1.4 Technology Scope 15 1.1.5 Commercialization Scope 18 1.1.6 Opportunities of the Technology and the 21st Century Nanotechnology Research and Development Act of 2003 22 1.2 Present Course of Investigation 23 2. Basic Nanotechnology Science—Physics 25 2.1 Approach and Scope 26 2.2 Basic Science 27 2.2.1 Atoms 27 2.2.2 Key Subatomic Particles 28 2.2.3 Atomic Structure 36 2.2.4 Substances and Elements 39 2.2.5 Nomenclature and Periodic Table 45 2.2.6 Making Compounds 47 2.3 Basic Properties of Conductors,Insulators,and Semiconductors 49 2.4 Basic Properties of Silicon and Basics of Transistor Operation 51 2.4.1 Transistors 51 2.4.2 Manufacturing Approaches 53 2.4.3 Manufacturing Limitations 55 2.5 Conclusion 58 vii ftoc.qxd 9/28/2005 11:05 AM Page viii viii CONTENTS 3. Basic Nanotechnology Science—Chemistry 59 3.1 Introduction and Background 59 3.2 Basic Chemistry Concepts 60 3.2.1 Physical Aspects 60 3.2.2 Bonding 64 3.2.3 Basic Formulation/Machinery of Chemical Reactions 73 3.2.4 Chemistry of Carbon 74 3.2.5 Graphical View of the Atomic Structure Of Materials 78 3.3 Conclusion 86 4. Nanotubes,Nanomaterials,and Nanomaterial Processing 87 4.1 Introduction 88 4.2 Basic Nanostructures 95 4.2.1 Carbon Nanotubes 95 4.2.2 Nanowires 101 4.2.3 Nanocones 106 4.2.4 Applications of Nanotubes,Nanowires,and Nanocones 106 4.2.5 Quantum Dots 111 4.2.6 Quantum Dots Nanocrystals 115 4.2.7 Ultrananocrystalline Diamond 117 4.2.8 Diamondoids 117 4.2.9 Nanocomposites 117 4.2.10 Thin-Films 120 4.2.11 Nanofoam 122 4.2.12 Nanoclusters 122 4.2.13 Smart Nanostructures 122 4.2.14 Environmental Issues for Nanomaterials 122 4.3 Manufacturing Techniques 123 4.3.1 General Approaches 123 4.3.2 Self-Assembly Methods 127 4.4 System Design 132 4.5 Conclusion 133 5. Nanophotonics 134 5.1 Introduction and Background:A Plethora of Opportunities 134 5.2 General Photonics Trends 137 5.3 Basic Nanophotonics 147 ftoc.qxd 9/28/2005 11:05 AM Page ix CONTENTS ix 5.3.1 Photonic Crystals 150 5.3.2 Photonic Crystal Fibers 153 5.3.3 Photonic Crystal Lasers 154 5.3.4 Plasmonics 155 5.3.5 Integration 155 5.3.6 New Technologies 156 5.3.7 Instrumentation 157 5.4 Photonic Crystals 157 5.4.1 Overview 157 5.4.2 Applicability of Technology 159 5.4.3 Fabrication 161 5.5 Telecom Applications of Photonic Crystals 162 5.5.1 Quantum Cascade Lasers 162 5.5.2 Photonic Crystal Fibers 163 5.5.3 Superprism Effect in Photonic Crystal 164 5.6 Plasmonics 165 5.6.1 Study of Light at the Nanoscale 165 5.6.2 Physics of the Near-Field 173 5.7 Advanced Topics 177 5.7.1 Nonlinear Optics 177 5.7.2 Confinement and Microresonators 179 5.7.3 Quantum Optics 183 5.7.4 Superlenses 184 5.8 Conclusion 184 6. Nanoelectronics 185 6.1 Introduction 186 6.1.1 Recent Past 186 6.1.2 The Present and its Challenges 189 6.1.3 Future 193 6.2 Overview of Basic Nanoelectronic Technologies 199 6.2.1 Single Electron Devices 199 6.2.2 Quantum Mechanical Tunnel Devices 202 6.2.3 Spin Nanoelectronics (Spintronics) 204 6.2.4 Molecular Nanoelectronics 205 6.2.5 Fault Tolerant Designs 207 6.2.6 Quantum Cellular Automata 208 6.2.7 Quantum Computing 209