N A N O PAT H O L O G Y THE HEALTH IMPACT OF NANOPARTICLES TThhiiss ppaaggee iinntteennttiioonnaallllyy lleefftt bbllaannkk ANTONIETTA M GATTI University of Modena & Reggio Emilia, Italy STEFANO MONTANARI Laboratory Nanodiagnostics, Italy N A N O P A T H O L O G Y THE HEALTH IMPACT OF NANOPARTICLES Published by Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd. 5 Toh Tuck Link Singapore 596224 Distributed by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd. 5 Toh Tuck Link, Singapore 596224 USA office: 27 Warren Street, Suite 401-402, Hackensack, NJ 07601 UK office: 57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H 9HE British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. NANOSTRUCTURES IN ELECTRONICS AND PHOTONICS Copyright © 2008 by Pan Stanford Publishing Pte. Ltd. All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval system now known or to be invented, without written permission from the Publisher. For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. In this case permission to photocopy is not required from the publisher. ISBN-13978-981-4241-10-6 ISBN-10981-4241-10-5 Printed in Singapore. Rhaimie - Nanostructures.pmd 1 1/16/2008, 5:05 PM PREFACE For many years now, engineering at the very small scale has remained the driving force behind a significant share of the global economy. Over the past four decades, microelectronic devices have proliferated and their myriad uses have increasingly defined our modern lifestyles. Throughout the microelectronics era, the sizes of individual devices integrated on semiconductor chips have been steadily reduced. With this trend still continuing, a future is in sight when we shall reach the end of the road for conventional device miniaturization. This will come about both as a result of the graininess of matter and the quantum mechanical nature of physical phenomena that become evident at very small length scales. Although the limitations would principally come from material science and physics, their repercussions would be largely economical. In order to keep the semiconductor industry profitable, new materials, processing techniques and device architectures will be needed. At the time of this writing we have about ten years to prepare for a graceful handover to alternative technologies. By all accounts, these futuristic technologies will exploit the physics and technology of novel devices whose dimensions will be measured in nanometers — 1 nanometer being one- billionth of a meter. Structures and devices at this scale are already at the heart of modern technology and these are going to play increasingly important roles in the future. Nanotechnology — the engineering discipline concerned with studying and fabricating such ultra small objects is now a thriving field in applied sciences and is attracting more researchers and funding throughout the world. Several countries have made nanotechnology funding a very high priority in their budget allocations, as an appreciation for its potential has grown in recent years. Developed countries as well as a number of developing countries see much promise from nanotechnology in fields as diverse as information technology and health care. The interdisciplinary nature of nanotechnology is perhaps the most noticeable feature of this new field. The nano world can be approached from several different disciplines such as materials science, electronics, physics, chemistry and biology. This creates new opportunities for scientists and engineers as well as policy makers. It is clear that explorations and innovations in this realm will open up entirely new v Nanostructures in Electronics and Photonics possibilities. This is good news for a world that is increasingly short of non-renewable sources of both materials and energy. Recognizing the potential of nanotechnology, many companies have started research in this field and more are joining them every year. Universities too are increasingly active in this area. As researchers we need to have a broad understanding of what our fellow researchers are doing elsewhere. This book is geared towards satisfying that need. Nanotechnology being such a wide discipline, this book is only concerned with its applications in electronics and photonics and in that too it looks at only a narrow selection of topics. The book contains a selection of 16 chapters contributed by a number of research teams around the world. They have especially expanded and adapted these chapters from papers published by them in the recent past. After the introductory chapter the book is divided into two parts. The first is comprised of works that deal with electronic applications of nanotechnology whereas the following part is constituted of nanotechnology applications in pushing the frontiers of photonic technologies. The chapters are focused on experimental aspects of nanotechnology rather than theoretical studies or computer modeling. All the contributors are active researchers in their fields of specialization and thus this book provides an up-to-date survey of the state of contemporary nanotechnology. The publisher, editor and contributors hope that it will be useful to both students and professional researchers alike. Editor Faiz Rahman Department of Electronics and Electrical Engineering University of Glasgow Scotland, United Kingdom vi CONTENTS Preface v List of Contributions ix 1 From Microstructures to Nanostructures 1 Faiz Rahman Nanoscale Materials and Structures for Electronics 2 Assembling Ferromagnetic Single-electron Transistors with Atomic Force Microscopy 29 Hakån Pettersson, Ruisheng Liu, Dmitry Suyatin and Lars Samuelson 3 Nanoporous Alumina Templates for Nanowire Electron Devices 41 Travis L. Wade, Costel S. Cojocaru, Jean-Eric Wegrowe and Didier Pribat 4 Single-walled Carbon Nanotube Transistors 63 Sunkook Kim and Saeed Mohammadi 5 Cooling with Integrated Carbon Nanotube Films 83 Géza Tóth, Krisztián Kordás, Pulickel M. Ajayan and Robert Vajtai 6 AC Dielectrophoresis Alignment of Gallium Nitride Nanowires (GaN NWs) for Use in Device Applications 97 Sang-Kwon Lee, Tae-Hong Kim and Seung-Yong Lee 7 Design, Fabrication, and Applications of Large-area Well-ordered Dense-array Three-dimensional Nanostructures 113 Chang-Hwan Choi and Chang-Jin “CJ” Kim vii Nanostructures in Electronics and Photonics 8 UV-NIL Stamp Fabrication Techniques with Diamond-like Carbon Film 131 Jun-ho Jeong, Ali Ozhan Altun and Ki-don Kim 9 ZnO Nanowires and Nanobelts: Structure Switch by Indium Doping 155 Hong Jin Fan 10 Field Emission Properties of 1-D SiC Nanostructures 179 Guozen Shen and Di Chen Nanoscale Materials and Structures for Photonics 11 Manipulating the Optical Properties of Individual and Arrays of Gold Nanopyramids 193 Jeunghoon Lee, Joel Henzie and Teri W. Odom 12 Properties of Gold Nanoantennas in the Infrared 209 F. Neubrech, J. Aizpurua, S. Karim, T. W. Cornelius, and A. Pucci 13 Three-dimensional Holographic Polymeric Photonic Crystal Operating in the Optical Communication Window 223 Jiaqi Chen and Ray T. Chen 14 Continuous Roll Nano-imprinting Technology for Large- scale Nano- and Microstructures 237 Shinill Kang, Suho Ann and Seok-min Kim 15 Fabrication and Characterization of Two-dimensional ZnO Photonic Nanostructures 251 Jingbiao Cui 16 Visible Light Emission from Innate Silicon Nanoparticles in Silicon-compound Films Grown at Low Temperatures 267 Cao Zexian Index 295 viii LIST OF CONTRIBUTIONS 1. From Microstructures to Nanostructures Faiz Rahman Department of Electronics and Electrical Engineering, University of Glasgow, Rankine Building, Oakfield Avenue, Glasgow G12 8LT, UK NANOSCALE MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES FOR ELECTRONICS 2. Assembling Ferromagnetic Single-electron Transistors with Atomic Force Microscopy Hakån Petterssona,b, Ruisheng S. Liua,b, Dmitry Suyatinb and Lars Samuelsonb a Center for Applied Mathematics and Physics, Halmstad University, Box 823, SE-301 18, Halmstad, Sweden b Solid State Physics and the Nanometer Structure Consortium, Lund University, Box 118, SE-221 00 Lund, Sweden 3. Nanoporous Alumina Templates for Nanowire Electron Devices Travis L. Wadea, Costel S. Cojocarua, Jean-Eric Wegrowea and Didier Pribatb a Laboratoires des Solides Irradiés, Ecole Polytechnique, 91128 Palaiseau, France b Laboratoire de Physique des Interfaces et des Couches Minces, Ecole Polytechnique, 91128 Palaiseau, France 4. Single-walled Carbon Nanotube Transistors Sunkook Kim and Saeed Mohammadi Birck Nanotechnology Center, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA ix