Oral Tradition, 16/2 (2001): 240-263 Nakhi Tiger Myth in its Context Bai Gengsheng Tiger belief is popular in the Tibeto-Burmese language family. In recent years, academic circles at home and abroad discovered it among the Yi, Hani, and Lisu. However, tiger belief among the Nakhi,1 one of the most important Tibeto-Burmese language families, is still largely unknown, a fact that impedes our general understanding when we consider the language family as a whole. To make up for this deficiency, the author will try to sort out the background of Nakhi tiger myth and provide a general perspective for the Tibeto-Burmese, or even China’s, tiger cultures. A Brief Introduction to the Dongba Myth of The Origin of the Tiger2 Tigers are known as [la33]3 in Nakhi, a term similar or close to the words for tiger in related languages: [lo31] in Achang, [lo42] in Bai, [la55] in Nu, [lo35] in Pumi, [la55] in Yi, [lo55mo33] in Jinuo, [xa311a31] in Hani, and [la53 qa53 pM31] in Lahu (Tibeto-Burmese 1991:124). This shows that the Nakhi and many other Tibeto-Burmese groups, who believe in the tiger, share the same linguistic stock. 1 The Nakhi, also known as the Naxi, are a minority group in China with a population of 309,500. Most Nakhi live in the mountainous region of Yunnan Province and in Lijiang. 2 The Origin of the Tiger : (la33 t’v33 la33 pM55 in Nakhi) a domba (to33 mba11), the Nakhi ritualist, would chant this story during such rites as “Empowering with prowess” and others; a newly inaugurated domba chants the myth to absorb the tiger’s power. 3 The Nakhi language has several dialects. The most representative one is the west dialect, which has four tones: 11 indicates a low falling tone, 33 a mid-flat tone, 55 a higher-flat tone, and 31 a lower rising tone. NAKHI TIGER MYTH IN ITS CONTEXT 241 Of the Nakhi tiger myths The Origin of the Tiger is the most famous. It explains the tiger’s ancestry, its birth, and its appearance, origin, and powerfulness. It goes something like this (trans. from He Z. 1963): The heavenly blue dragon is grandfather to the tiger, / the white- faced cat is grandmother to the tiger, / the tiger’s father is called Lusigebu, / its mother is called Lusigemu. The tiger’s head is granted to him by the heavens. / The tiger’s skin is presented to him by the earth. / The tiger’s lungs are given to him by the moon. / The tiger’s bones are granted to him by the stones. / The tiger’s flesh is given to him by the soil. / The tiger’s breath is given to him by the wind. / The tiger’s blood is given to him by the water. / The tiger’s heart is given to him by iron. / The tiger’s eyes are given to him by the stars. / The tiger’s voice is given to him by the blue dragon. / The tiger’s claws are given to him by the vulture. / The tiger’s gallbladder is given to him by the white yak. / The tiger’s ears are given to him by the jackal. There were no stripes on the tiger’s body at first. / Those stripes on the tiger’s cheeks, face, ears, head, back, arms, sides, waist, legs, tail, and eye sockets / are all drawn as an expression of gratefulness to the tiger by the crow who has enjoyed the tiger’s leftovers. / The stripes represent prowess. Thereafter, / the wasp stole one of the tiger’s stripes. / Hence it has tiger stripes all over its body. / The horse stole one of the tiger’s roars, / and it neighs like a tiger. / The frog stole one of the tiger’s claws, / and its webbed foot looks like a tiger’s claw. The stripes on the tiger’s forehead look like bright pearls; / they can bring longevity to man. / The stripes on the tiger’s face look benevolent; / they can give a domba4 longevity. / The stripes on its shoulder look like treasure; / it is granted to the ritualist who releases the souls of the craftsmen of longevity from purgatory. / The stripes on the left should look like a sharp knife; / they symbolize ingenuity. / The stripes on the right arm look like a mirror; / they grant beauty, wealth, and prosperity to people. / The stripes on the waist look like the moon; / they shine as much as the moon. / The stripes under the left armpit look like a golden plow; / they are capable of opening up the land. / The stripes on the left leg look like a gold-plated bell; / they are at the disposal of Dingbashiluo.5 4 Domba (to33mba11): the ritualist of the domba religion among the Nakhi. Domba is a loan word from Tibetan meaning “wise man.” All domba are male and inherit their office patrilineally. A domba participates fully in the daily life of the village, acting as a holder of spectacular ceremonies or rites for curing diseases in neighboring villages. They possess a multitude of scriptures in the domba pictographic language, and are good at singing, dancing, music, crafts, smithing, disease-curing, and divination. 5 Dingbashiluo (ti33mba11sI55lÈr55): master god of the Nakhi domba religion. It is said that he is the founder of this religion. Since his name is close to ston-pa-shes-rab in 242 BAI GENGSHENG / The stripes on its right leg look like jinjizi; / they are available for the zoba ritualist’s use. / The stripes on the tail look like iron pins6; / they are a magical weapon for vanquishing enemies. The tiger befriended Chongrenpandi7/ and helped him to fight the western monster Leqinsipu.8 / After Chongrenpandi’s death, / the tiger was killed by Taomabenli9 / to redeem his lost soul. The tiger died with its head towards the east. / Its skin has been divided into 99 pieces. / Miliduzhu10 has received one piece; / as a result he killed Milishuzhu,11 / and won worldwide fame. / The nine unvanquishable men received their share; / as a result they killed nine zhixu ghosts,12 / and won worldwide fame. / The nine men from the Ha tribe13 had their share; / as a result they killed nine Su ghosts14 and won worldwide fame. / pronunciation, as are his experiences, it is commonly believed that he combined bon religion dogmas with the early Nakhi primitive religion and created the domba religion. 6 Gold-plated bells ( jinjizi) and iron pins belong to the magical paraphernalia of the domba religion. 7 Chongrenpandi (ts’o 31ze33p’Èr33tv11): a Nakhi legendary hero. To cure his father’s disease he went to the ghost world to steal the elixir of life; he is respected as an ancestor of medicine. 8 Leqinsipu (le55ti33si33p’v33): a legendary western monster. 9 Taomabenli (t’a55ma33pM33lM33): a legendary tiger-shooting hero. 10 Miliduzhu (mM33lM55du11dzu33): chief of the Du tribe in the Nakhi mythology. The territory under his rule looked like the white heaven, white earth, white sun, and white moon, representing brightness, justice, kindness, and other divine merits. 11 Milishuzhu (mM33lM55su11dzu33): chief of the Su tribe in the Nakhi mythology, whose territory looked like the dark heaven, dark earth, dark sun, and dark moon, representing darkness, evil, ugliness, and other demonic qualities. 12 Zhixu (sy 11di33ts’I11): a type of demon in the domba, who deliberately brings disasters and diseases to mankind. 13 Ha (xa33): a divine tribe in the Nakhi mythology. It is said that the Ha tribe and the Su tribe were half brothers, with different mothers. They later separated. The Ha occupied social space, while the Su inhabited wild and mountainous space. At last a war broke out between the Ha, who represented civilization, and the Su, who represented barbarianism. The Ha tribe had a decisive victory. 14 Su (su11ts’I11): Since the Su tribe lived under a dark heaven and on a dark earth, symbolizing darkness, evil, and ugliness, they were called the “ghost tribe.” NAKHI TIGER MYTH IN ITS CONTEXT 243 Youlaodingduo15 got his share; / as a result he killed seven “ meng ghosts”16 / and won worldwide fame. / Laobutuogou 17 got a piece; / as a result, he killed du ghosts18 / and won worldwide fame. / Tuogouguru19 got a piece; / and as a result he killed nine tuoma monster-kings20 / and won worldwide fame. / Puluolaobu21 got a piece; / as a result he divided gods from ghosts, / and won worldwide fame. / Chongrenlien 22 got a piece; / as a result he killed the yak and tiger with arrows / and won worldwide fame. / Chongrenlien’s eldest son [Tibetan] got a piece; / as result he could ride a lightning horse / and won worldwide fame. / Chongrenlien’s second son [Nakhi] got a piece; / as a result he destroyed ninety-nine enemies’ fortresses and ninety-nine rocks / and won worldwide fame. / Chongrenlien’s third son [Bai] got a piece; / as a result he was capable of building tiled houses / and won worldwide fame. / Gaolequ23 got a piece; / and he gave birth to four able sons24 / and won worldwide fame. . . . 15 Youlaudingduo (jÈ 11la33ti33do33): a spirit in the domba religion, who could distinguish right and wrong, perform justice, and suppress demons. 16 “ Meng ghost” (mu 33ts’I11): the hungry ghost in the domba religion who distinguished himself by his lasciviousness, his gullibility, and by his fear of the neighing of horses, the roaring of oxen, the barking of dogs, the sound of a domba praying, the noises a rich man makes while drinking soup, the bleating of goats, the sound of goats splashing in water, and so on. 17 Laobutuogou (1a33bv33t’o33kÈ55): an ancestor eight generations above the dingba shiluo god-ancestor. It is said that he specialized in holding ceremonies to welcome the god of victory and that of prosperity. 18 Du (dv11ts’I11): monsters in the domba religion. They were born from nine pairs of eggs laid by the ghost-master, who was born from a primitive black egg. They were 360 in number, lived up in heaven, and were used to prevent people from moving back to earth. 19 Tuogouguru (t’o33kÈ55kv33z’I): a spirit in the domba religion. 20 Tuoma (t’o33ma11ti’I11): a master of evil ghosts in the domba religion. 21 Puluolaobu (p’v 331o11a11bv55): a spirit in the domba religion who has endless magical power and can divide ghost from gods. 22 Chongrenlien (ts’o31ze33lM55M33): human ancestor in the Nakhi mythology, who was a survivor of the floods, and who married with a heavenly maiden, Chenhongbaobai (ts’e55ho11bu33bÈ33), giving rise to the ancestors of the Tibetan, Nakhi, and Bai peoples. 23 Gaolequ (ka 33le33ty55): in the genealogy of the narrative Nakhi mythology Gaolequ is the fifth-generation offspring of the human ancestor Chongrenlien, and the fourth-generation offspring of the Nakhi’s founding ancestor. His four children, Ye 244 BAI GENGSHENG The Cultural Interpretation of The Origin of the Tiger How should we interpret The Origin of the Tiger (cf. He Z. 1963)? I believe that this work above all belongs to the tiger worship of the Nakhi. With its supernatural themes and lively wording, The Origin of the Tiger graphically expresses both the Nakhi belief in their tiger origin and their strong aesthetic sensibility. It depicts the objects of worship that have fully absorbed people’s spiritual beliefs, even to the level of a totem. Therefore, the tiger is perfect inside and out, in appearance and in essence; it is full of dignity whether dead or alive. The tiger’s genealogy is a noble one: the ancestor on his father’s side is the blue dragon in heaven, and the ancestor on his mother’s side is the white-faced cat. The constituent parts of the tiger’s fleshy body are sacred: his head, skin, lung, liver, bones, flesh, breath, blood, heart, eyes, voice, claws, and ears are all granted by nature, enabling him to absorb the essential spiritual properties of heaven and earth and of the sun and the moon. The shape of the tiger is beautiful: its sides, face, ears, head, back, forelegs, waist, hind parts, paws, tail, and the area around its eyes are all replete with beautiful and solemn stripes. It can either grant people longevity or put its enemy to death; it can either open up heaven and earth or compete with the sun and the moon to see who is brighter; it can bestow people with wisdom and strength; it can give people beauty and wealth or serve as the ritualist’s magical talisman for conquering ghosts. Even after its death, the tiger’s skin will make the god who possesses it famous and the man who possesses it a hero. Such descriptions in The Origin of the Tiger have made an ordinary animal into an object of worship endowed with perfection and endless power, and in harmony with the Nakhi tiger worship in the Nakhi religion, language, folklore, and arts. What constitutes such worship? It can only be explained by reference to the Nakhi view of nature, their ethics, and their sense of self-understanding. Worship of animals reflects the fact that animals’ relation to man is one of the basic relations between nature and mankind. Man not only conducts everyday interactions with the animal world, but also uses it as the main staple for livelihood. Man satisfies his needs for fat, protein, and fibres by hunting and fishing and the domestication of animals. In fact, animals (jÈ11), Shu (su11), He (ho11), and Mai (mÈ11), each became an ancestor of the four great Nakhi tribes in remote antiquity. 24 Ye, Shu, He, and Mai. NAKHI TIGER MYTH IN ITS CONTEXT 245 that interact with human beings differ in rank. Among all mountain animals, the tiger is the king because it is large in body, quick in movement, fierce by nature, and powerful. Its existence not only influences other animals, but also threatens human life. Therefore, the Nakhi ancestry worshipped its unique dignity and ferocity, as well as its superiority in bodily build; awe lies at the core of their tiger worship. As the clan gradually became aware of its collective identity, its members desired to trace the clan’s origins to a powerful genesis; thus tiger worship rose to the level of totemism. People began to regard the tiger as the symbol for their own tribes or clans, an icon to distinguish themselves from other communities. The Nakhi have many totems, such as yaks, bears, golden turtles, goats, and dogs, that played cognate roles alongside the tiger. This is nothing surprising, because the Nakhi are a community consisting of many subgroups that practice totemism. These worshipped animals among the Nakhi involved two specific beliefs: first, the elements of the universe either create the totemic animal or the universe is created from the animal; and, second, the totem belongs to the clan’s genealogy. The totemic animals usually create the universe through transformations of their bodies. For example, the domba scripture Chongbantu describes the process of transformation of the yak into the universe. After the yak has been slaughtered (He F. 1963:17),25 Its head became the heavens, Its skin became the earth, Its lungs became the sun, Its liver became the moon, Its bowels became roads, Its bones became stone, Its flesh became soil, Its blood became water, Its sides became rock, Its tail became the trees, Its wool became grass. Its head points to the north, Its tail to the south. Not only the yak but also the golden turtle transformed in this way, with the only exception being that the latter transformed into the five elements26 and 25 Chongbantu (ts’o31mbÈr33t’v33): a Nakhi epic that describes the origin of the universe and mankind. 26 Metal, wood, fire, water, and earth. 246 BAI GENGSHENG five directions, a discrepancy that seems to stem from assimilating foreign myths (He Z. 1964a:37-38).27 In Lamumengtu, this transforming principle has been reversed to work on human figures. It is said that after the human figure was formed, the sun gave him lungs, the moon liver, the stone bones, the soil flesh, the water blood, the pan god eyes, the dong god head and feet, the sai god hands, the chan god teeth, and the heng god heart, giving soul and flesh to the lifeless wood figure, enabling it to return to the ancestral world (He S. 1987:l22-24).28 Thus, the way the human figure acquired soul and flesh mirrors the way the yak transformed into the universe, the only difference being the direction of transformation. The Origin of the Tiger, like Lamumengtu, has adopted the theme of combining all elements. It is said that the tiger got its head from the heaven, its skin from the earth, its lungs from the moon, its bones from the stones, its flesh from the soil, its breath from the wind, its blood from the water, and its ears from the jackal. Chongbantu, Lamumengtu, and The Origin of the Tiger all employ a series of transformations, no matter what combination or type, and make relevant adjustments based on whether the hero is the yak, the tiger, the human, or whatever. For example, the mutually transformative relations between the sun and the lungs, the moon and the liver, stone and bone, water and blood, soil and flesh, earth and skin, stars and eyes, wind and breath, the road and the bowels, and so on are somewhat stable, except that the yak in Chongbantu includes the road and the bowels, the rock and the sides, the tree and the tail, and the grass and wool, while the tiger in The Origin of the Tiger has the sun and the eyes, iron and the heart, the blue dragon and the voice, the eagle and the claws, the white yak and the gallbladder, the jackal and the ear, and wind and breath. These transformations are all based on two principles of likeness in appearance and nature. For example, the tiger’s ears resemble those of the jackal and the tiger’s boldness is like that of the yak’s. Unlike Chongbantu, both The Origin of the Tiger and Lamumengtu picture all natural elements transforming into the tiger or human figures. These two latter works, especially Lamumengtu, came into being at a time far removed from that of Chongbantu. The difference is significant: Chongbantu appeared during totemic times, while the Lamumengtu and The Origin of the Tiger came into 27 From Bibaoguasong (py11p’a11kua55~su11): also translated as The Record of the White Bat’s Getting the Scripture, a Nakhi myth about the origin of divination. 28 Lamumengtu (la33mu33mM33t’v33): a Nakhi domba scripture, read at the rites for redeeming lost souls, which includes mythological parts. NAKHI TIGER MYTH IN ITS CONTEXT 247 being during the period of ancestral worship. Both do, however, preserve some totemic traces of the past. The Nakhi totems as universe-transformers, or integrators of all elements of the cosmos, possess supernatural distinctions, spiritual importance, and grandeur of appearance, as well as uniqueness of origin. Without these characteristics, the yak, the tiger, and the sheep would not have become totems that could arouse feelings of awe in the hearts of Nakhi ancestors. Totemic animals usually belong to a clan’s genealogy and serve as human ancestors in a broader sense. It is same with the tiger. In the Chongbanchongsha (ts’o11bÈr33ts’o11sa55), there are detailed descriptions about the origin of man and his genealogy that have later been used by the Nakhi rulers and included in the famous Mu Shu Family Genealogy. Its basic contents are as follows (Lijiang County 2002): Chinese P i nyi n N akhi pronunciation T ranslatio n cao gu tian neng gu ts’o1 1kv33mM33nM33kv11 The heavens gave birth to a human egg. cao feng di neng feng ts’o11bv11dy11nM33bv11 The earth hatched the human egg. cao xian gu fu gu ts’o11ze33gv33fv55gv33 Albumen and yolk began to mix. gu fu gu lu gu gv33fv55gv33lv11gv33 It was getting warm then; gu lu qi lu gu gv33lv11sa55 lv11gv33 The egg created warm air. qi lu lu lu gu sa55lv11dzer33lv11gv33 The warm air condensed to dew. lu lu liu dian gu dzer33lv11ts’ua55tie There were six drops of dew. yi dian hal niang ding dw33tie55hM55nie11die33 One drop fell into the sea; hai shi hai xian gu hM55sl55hM55ze33gv33 Changed into hai shi hai xian, hai xian la xian gu hM55ze33la33ze33gv33 Changed into hai xian la xian, la xian tian xian gu la33ze33mM33ze33gv33 Changed into la xian tian xian, tian xian cong cong mM33ze33ts’l33tx’l11 Changed into tian xian cong cong, cong cong cong yang ts’l33 ts’l33 ts’l33jy11 Changed into cong cong cong yang, cong yang cong jiao ts’l33jy11 ts’l33tcy11 Changed into cong yang cong jiao, cong jiao jiao xian ts’l33 tcy11 tcy11ze33 Changed into cong jiao jiao xian, jiao xian bi xian tcy11ze33bi33ze33 Changed into jiao xian bi xian, bi xian cao xian bi33ze33ts’o11ze33 Changed into Bi xian cao xian, cao xian li wei wei ts’o11ze33lM55γM33γM33 Changed into Cao xian li wei wei, li wei nuo yu lM55γM33no55γo11 Changed into Li wei nuo yu, nuo yu ban pu no55γo33bæ33p’v33 Changed into Nuo yu ban pu, ban pu yu bæ33p’v33γo33 Changed into Ban pu yu, yu gao lai γo33ga33la11 Changed into Yu gao lai, gao lai qiu ga33la33 tcy55 Changed into Gao lai qiu, ye, shu, he, mai29 je11su11ho11me13 Changed into Ye, Shu, He, and Mai. 29 This genealogy is contained in the Mu Shu Family Genealogy of the Nakhi rulers. The quotation, however, is from the domba scripture Chongban chongsha. Since it is transcribed with Chinese characters, some words were transliterated and some were freely translated with sound transcriptions difficult to understand. For that reason, the author has added Chinese Pinyin transcriptions, together with international phonetic symbols of the whole text. 248 BAI GENGSHENG In this very long genealogy, from cao gu tian neng gu to hai shi hai xian gu, the heavens gave birth to the human egg and the earth hatched it; then it warmed up, became dew, and dropped into the sea. From hai xian la xian gu to jiao xian bi xian, the genealogy of the birth of animals is told, among which la, the tiger, first appears, followed by tian (“oxen”), cong (“goat”), yang (“sheep”), jiao (“horse”), and so on. It is only with bi xian cao xian that the genealogy of human origins unfolded. Conjecturing from the features of the genealogy, which consists of the Tibeto-Burmese patronymic system, we would say that hi xian cao xian is father to the human ancestor cao xian li wei wei (also called Chongrenlien). Of course, another view would say that the human ancestor appeared right from tian xian cong cong. However, the tiger (la) is held to be the earliest animal that has ever appeared quite close to the remotest human ancestors. In his grand work A Dictionary of Nakhi Pictographs (1981), Fang Guoyu revealed that there are sayings claiming that “the tiger is the human forefather” among the Nakhi folk. The relationship between man and tiger can be proven in the Chongbantu. In this work, the human ancestor Chen hongbaobai’ming (ts’e55ho11bu33be11mi55) was originally a heavenly maiden, whose parents were heavenly gods, called Zilaoapu (dzI331a11a31p’v33) or Zilaoa zu (dzI331a11a31 dzI33). Here lao is same as la in the Official Genealogy of the Mu Family and the Origin of the Tiger; both mean “tiger.” The pictographs zi lao a pu and zi lao a zu even look like a tiger. If man did not regard the tiger as an ancestor, this kind of pictograph and sound-to-meaning correspondence would be inexplicable. Due to the symbiotic relationship between man and tiger, the ancient Nakhi people widely practiced the custom of using “tiger” as a surname. For example, the headman of Zuosuo of Yanyuan, Sichuan, was from the Nari, a sub-group of the Nakhi. He called himself La la, which means tiger.30 Not only the headman of Zuosuo, but also the headman of Zhongsuo was known by the surname of tiger (la). For example, in the Hongwu reign of the Ming dynasty, Lawu was appointed head of a thousand households. From La Ruilin, who entered office during the Kangxi reign of the Qing dynasty, to La Chengjie, who was murdered by the Black Yi slave owners in the 1940s, and including La Junrong, La Yongzhong, La Tingxiang, La 30 “Before liberation, the hereditary headman of Zuosuo and the 480 households of Nari under his government were known by the surname of La [‘tiger’]” (Guo and He 1996:210). NAKHI TIGER MYTH IN ITS CONTEXT 249 Yinghan, La Wenqing, La Bangzuo, and La Shutong, all used the same name (cf. Guo and He 1996).31 Again, among the four ancient sub-branches of the Nakhi to which the hereditary headman of the Mu family at Lijinag of Yuiinan belonged, the sub-branch Ye usually regard their first ancestor as being born to the tiger, called Yebeyela (jÈ11pM55jÈ11la33) (Guo and He 1996). In the Record of the Lijiang Fu, there is even a legend about a man transforming into a tiger (Guanxu Reign): “It is said that in the early Yunan dynasty, Baishali moududi was brave and determined by nature. Whenever there was injustice, he would lie on the huge rock, transformed in a second, roaring and jumping, leaving traces on the rock, which we can spot even today” (ibid.:443). Because humans and tigers share common ancestry, the Origin of the Tiger tells that the human ancestor Congren Pandi befriended the tiger and the tiger took his body to his original ancestral burial ground after his death. Here the author emphasized the similarity of the human ancestor and the tiger. However, since the Origin of the Tiger is not the first version of the tiger myth, the story adopted the plot in which Taomabenli (t’a55ma33pM33lM33), the hunter, killed the tiger. Some might doubt that the tiger is a totem for the Nakhi ancestors, for why would a people kill their own totem? However, in Asia, America, and Africa, many peoples have the habit of killing and eating their totems, believing that this practice will allow them to absorb the totems’ power and will give them lifelong protection. The same idea is at work when people dress in tiger skins, hoping to glean their magical power. For example, although the Ewenkis in China regard the bear as their totem, they do not refrain from shooting it. However, they will hold a ceremony for their victim, crying at the top of their voices, as if they had lost a parent. Those bear-hunters will not be condemned for the killing; on the contrary, they will be considered true heroes. Whether an adult can become a real hunter largely depends on his ability to hunt big game, such as bears and tigers (cf. Zhu 1999). The Origin of the Tiger narrates that the primordial tiger’s skin was divided into 99 pieces and allocated to many gods, human ancestors, and ritualists, who killed and conquered their enemies, thus making contributions to society and winning world fame. In this case “99” is only an estimated figure; the Nakhi lay emphasis on the yang (odd) number and “99” signifies multiplicity. The important gesture here is the division of the tiger’s skin. What cultural meaning does dividing tiger skin have? What does it aim at? 31 Among the Nari of the Nakhi in the Ningliang County of Yunnan “the hereditary headman at Yongning takes the tiger as his root-ancestor and prohibits people from killing it” (ibid.).