This book looks into the interplay between different social groups Christian Holst that existed on the Middle Niger Bend between 1549 to 1660. The groups mainly under scrutiny are Muslim traders and scholars – the “Ulema” and the worldly lords that ran the polities that had Muslim traders, Songhay warriors laid claim to the region of the Middle Niger Bend; first the Ask- yas, then the Arma. The changing relationships between these and the Arma different groups and of individuals within them are analysed within the wider historical background of the rise and fall of the The social destruction of the Middle Niger Bend from 1549 to 1660 Songhay Empire and the subsequent takeover of the region by the Moroccan Arma that had conquered the heart of the Middle Niger Bend in 1591. This work explores the interaction between the groups through the framework of honour, religion and ances- try and traces the initially successful cooperation between rulers, a m traders and scholars to its breakdown and the final social disinte- Ar e gration of the Middle Niger Bend. d th n a s r o ri r a w y a h g n o S s, r e d a r m t sli u M ISBN 978-3-7376-0212-9 st ol H n a sti ri h C 9 783737 602129 Christian Holst Muslim traders, Songhay warriors and the Arma The social destruction of the Middle Niger Bend from 1549 to 1660 kassel university press This work has been accepted by the Faculty of Social Sciences of the University of Kassel as a thesis for acquiring the academic degree of Doktor der Philosophie (Dr. phil.). Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Winfried Speitkamp Co-Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Anne-Charlott Trepp Defense day: 26th of October 2015 Bibliographic information published by Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data is available in the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de. Zugl.: Kassel, Univ., Diss. 2015 ISBN 978-3-7376-0212-9 (print) ISBN 978-3-7376-0213-6 (e-book) DOI: http://dx.medra.org/10.19211/KUP9783737602136 URN: http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0002-402137 © 2016, kassel university press GmbH, Kassel www.upress.uni-kassel.de Printed in Germany Table of Contents 1. Introduction...............................................................................................5 2. Literary Review........................................................................................11 3. Methodology: How to deal with ethnicity?.............................................19 4. Sources and their problems.....................................................................33 5. A short history of the Middle Niger Bend...............................................46 5.1 The Rise of Songhay......................................................................................46 5.2 The War for Sunni Ali’s legacy and its aftermath...........................................53 5.3 The Moroccan factor.....................................................................................62 5.4 The Moroccans attack....................................................................................69 6. Muslims on the Middle Niger Bend........................................................81 6.1 First Muslims................................................................................................81 6.2 The merging of the worlds -Sudan and Bidan...............................................96 6.3 The merging of the worlds -Rulers and the Muslim estate...........................110 6.4 The fall and dispersion of the Muslim estate................................................124 7. Honour, Islam and the Arma................................................................136 8. Slavery and horses.................................................................................158 8.1 Slavery under Songhay................................................................................158 8.2 Slavery under the Arma...............................................................................171 9. The social dissolution of the Middle Niger Bend..................................184 9.1 Clash of ideologies......................................................................................184 9.2 1588 -The last revolt and the ruin of Songhay.............................................206 9.2 The Arma and the Others.............................................................................226 - 3 - 10. Conclusion...........................................................................................269 11. Maps.....................................................................................................275 12. Rulers of Songhay from Sunni Ali until the Moroccan invasion.....279 13. The Pashas...........................................................................................281 14. Bibliography........................................................................................283 Primary Sources................................................................................................283 Secondary Sources............................................................................................287 - 4 - 1. Introduction The sub-Saharan world is often seen as completely separate from the rest of the world and is frequently simply ignored. Even if it is taken into account it is only dis- played, paradoxically, not in its own right but only as the subaltern part of something larger. It becomes the object of European history or the extension of the North African world. In both cases it is not seen as the subject of its own past. Nevertheless it was, like other major cultural zones, on the one hand a vigorous place that possessed unique dy- namicsthat shaped its own cultural responses to the different environments in which it was placed and at the same time was connected to the wider world surrounding it. In fact, it is useless to speak of “THE sub-Saharan world.” As is the case with Asia, Europe and other major areas of the globe, sub-Saharan Africa is split up into a host of different environments, peoples and ways of living which are too disparate in order to fit them under one big umbrella. Each of these areas was a highly dynamic place with, to use Fernand Braudel’s term, a deep history, stretching back millennia. This story takes place in a region often called the “Bilad al-Sudan”1-more specifi- cally in the part often called “Takrur”. Translated into English it simply means “Land of the Blacks” and was used as a description by Arab geographers for the land south of the Sahara stretching from the Atlantic coast of West Africa all the way to the Red Sea. This strip touches on its northern limits the Sahara, an area which is called the Sahel, Arabic for “coast”. Here, the sea is the desert and its ships the camels. The south is marked by the deep forests of modern day Ivory Coast, Cameroon and the Central African Repub- lic. In between these two the Bilad al-Sudan is dominated by the Savannah. Large, seemingly infinite plains stretch from horizon to horizon, home to shrubs and bushes. This division was instated by the ancient Arabs that had divided Africa along the lines 1In Arabic, the pronunciation of the final “l” of “al” (definite article) changes de- pending on the initial letter of the following word (sun-or moon letter). This is some- times reflected in transliterations. In such a case “al-Sudan” becomes “as-Sudan” etc. However, this makes it harder to find references in other works which is why “al” is used throughout. - 5 - of its climatic differences: North Africa, the Sahara, the Savannah and the rain-forests. For them, the continent more or less ended there, as no Arab had contact with a human living inland further south. The Bilad al-Sudan was barely understood by these early Arab writers and instead of being used to describe its inhabitants on its own terms it was more an effort to set apart the “Blacks” from the “Berbers” and the “Arabs”. Linked to this classification was a clear order: Arabs at the top, Blacks at the bottom and Berbers in between. The response from the inhabitants of the Bilad al-Sudan to being relegated to the bottom rung was differentiated and sometimes somewhat curious. Whereas the intellectual titan of the Sudan, Ahmad Baba, argued for equality between the groups as long as the individual members adhered to Islam, others, like Ahmad al-Shinqiti, tried to argue that they in fact were part of the North African world, the “Trab al-Bidan”, despite them living in the at the southern fringes of the Sahara and thus not black.2 The Bilad al-Sudan had made early contact with the Muslim world, beginning in the eighth century C.E. leading to the introduction of Islam and to diplomatic and commer- cial links. The Bilad al-Sudan is often split into several sub-regions: Nubia, Beja and Ethiopia in the east and the Bilad al-Takrur in the west.3Takrur was described first by al-Bakri (1014–1094) as a town situated on the lower Senegal river. Its usage was wid- ened by later authors like al-Umari and al-Qalqasandi and used as a term for the territo- ry of Mali and later for West Africa in general. In this sense it was taken up by natives of this part of the world as well. The Wolof term “Tocolor” from which the French “Toucouleur” is taken shows the modern day link to this past.4Ahmad Baba, the most famous scholar to have come from this region, calledhimself “Takruri” and local chron- icles like the Tadzkiret al-Nisian, finished in 1751, used it as well. It is however not a 2al-(cid:2)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:5)(cid:6)(cid:7)(cid:8)(cid:7)(cid:9)(cid:10)(cid:11)(cid:12)mad ibn al-(cid:11)(cid:13)(cid:7)(cid:5)(cid:14)(cid:10)Al-(cid:2)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:5)(cid:6)(cid:7)(cid:5)(cid:8)(cid:9)(cid:3)(cid:10)(cid:11)(cid:12)(cid:13)(cid:14)(cid:8)(cid:15)(cid:16)(cid:3)(cid:17)(cid:11)(cid:18)(cid:8)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:13)(cid:21)(cid:22)(cid:5)(cid:6)wa-al-(cid:23)(cid:3)(cid:24)(cid:11)(cid:14)(cid:8) (cid:25)alá Tilka al-(cid:17)(cid:13)(cid:24)(cid:11)(cid:16). Cairo: al-Ma(cid:8)(cid:15)(cid:16)(cid:17)(cid:16)(cid:3)(cid:10)(cid:16)(cid:18)-(cid:19)(cid:16)(cid:13)(cid:20)(cid:18)(cid:4)(cid:21)(cid:16)(cid:3)(cid:9)(cid:10)(cid:22)(cid:23)(cid:22)(cid:22)(cid:9)(cid:10)(cid:24)(cid:14)(cid:25)(cid:26)(cid:26)-423. 3al-Hajj, Muhammad. ‘The Character of the Central Bilad al-Sudan in Historical Perspective’. In The Central Bilad al-Sudan-Tradition & Adaptation, edited by Zusuf Fadl Hasan and Paul Doornbos. London: SOAS, 1977, P.14-15. 4al-Naqar, ’Umar. ‘Takrur the History of a Name’. The Journal of African History 10, no. 3 (1 January 1969): 365–374, P.365. - 6 - clearly defined term and Takrur, like the Bilad al-Sudan itself, had no exact borders and it was used by different authors in different manners. Al-Burtuli for example juxtaposes Takrur and the Bilad al-Sudan. Others, like al-Samsadi, include the Shinqit into Takrur, which extends the latter to a considerable degree into the desert.5It is important howev- er to recognise that these terms were not merely foreign ascriptions but were used by natives living in these regions as self-descriptions. They argued with these terms and tried to establish their own identity through these idioms. It shows cultural self- consciousness, independence and dynamism and also scholarly and political activity which is only begun to be recognised in modern literature. Here, for the sake of simplic- ity, Takrur and the Bilad al-Sudan are used synonymously, as is also often done in the sources used. It is a moniker for the western Savannah and Sahel, dominated by the Middle Niger Bend and the Senegal river. This was the ideal soil for civilisations to grow, and grow they did. The Bilad al- Sudan gave rise to various empires and this study tells the end of one and the beginning of another. The biggest empire West Africa had ever seen was Songhay. Established by Sunni Ali and brought to glistering height by Askya al-Hadj Muhammad and Askya Dawud, it transformed the region and gave rise to a high culture as powerful as never witnessed before. Works created by its scholars still influence thinking in West Africa today and local rulers tried until the 19thcentury to trace their heritage back to the rulers of Songhay in an effort to take part in their glory. The heartland of this empire was the Middle Niger Bend which was in the heart of Takrur. An area which starts in Djenne, goes up the Niger to Timbuktu and follows the river east to Gao. Its social life was dom- inated by two groups: the Muslim or religious estate and the ruling or warrior estate. Like all definitions of social units, it is not a hard and sharp classification but rather de- scribes tendencies, while still trying to be analytically useful. The Muslim estate con- sistedof members with many different ethnic and linguistic heritages. However, they all had a basis of learning rooted in Maliki Islam, spoke at least a smattering of Arabic and had a common basis in Muslim law and code of conduct which gave its members a 5Osswald, Rainer. Die Handelsstädte der Westsahara: Die Entwicklung der ara- bisch-maurischen Kultur von Sinqit, Wadan, Tisit und Walata.Berlin: D. Reimer, 1986, P.3-4. - 7 - shared identity. The ruling estate is easier to define. All its members were part of the ruling elite of the Middle Niger Bend. The Askyas, Faris and Kois (and later the Pashas and Qa'ids) were all part of the ruling estate and additionally often members of the same family as the ruling strata wereessentially run like a neptocracy. They often considered themselves Muslim but they had never visited a madrassa or were acquainted with any form of deeper Muslim learning like the members of the Muslim estate were. They were interested in running the realm not so much in studying it.6 The distinction, self- description and outside definition of these two groups will become subject to much greater scrutiny in the chapter on “Muslims on the Middle Niger Bend” and “Honour, Islam and the Arma”. The end of Songhay came with the Moroccan attack in 1591. Fielding a small, but technically superior army they destroyed the Songhay forces and took over the Middle Niger Bend. Initially they managed to set themselves up as the dominant power in the region but soon enough they came under pressure by other local groups. Their hold quickly began to crumble not only because of external forces that impinged on their ter- ritory but also because of internal divisions that precluded a coherent response to the external threats. In addition the lifeline of this Moroccan outpost to the north was cut very quickly because Morocco itself began to be mired in succession struggles. In 1660 the invaders thus decided to give up the prayer for the Moroccan ruler in their mosques, which indicates that they considered themselves very much on their own. Their realm ultimately fell to a Tuareg attack in 1737. The Moroccan invaders quickly became to be known as the “Arma” (or “Ruma”) which is Arabic ((cid:27)(cid:28)(cid:29)(cid:30)(cid:31)or sometimes (cid:27)(cid:28)!(cid:29)(cid:30)(cid:31)) for “fusi- lier”, “the ones with the flintlocks”. Songhay and the Arma essentially had the same problem: How to stabilise their sway over the land, how to hold onto power, how to live the life they wanted to live? We will see in the course of the following chapters that they both had a fundamentally different approach to this problem that proved to be initially successful but did not pro- vide long term stability. 6Hunwick, J. ‘Secular Power and Religious Authority in Muslim Society: The Case of Songhay’. The Journal of African History37, no. 2 (1996): 175–194, P.180-181. - 8 - "(cid:3)#(cid:10)$%&*(cid:21)(cid:10)$%(cid:16)+%$(cid:10)/(cid:4)%(cid:3)(cid:10)%(cid:3)#(cid:10)+#(cid:4);(cid:5)(cid:10)<=(cid:10)(cid:11)$>(cid:21)(cid:16)(cid:10)@(cid:16)/&*(cid:10)V+&(cid:18)#*(cid:10)=+<(cid:13)(cid:10)(cid:22)X(cid:25)(cid:23)(cid:10)Y(cid:10)(cid:22)X[\](cid:10)/(cid:3)<(cid:10)/(cid:16)$(cid:10) the last ruler who reigned over Songhay while it was at the peak of its power. By having his reign as a starting point it is possible to trace the downfall of the empire and the rela- tionship between its different groups which ossified all aspects of social life, the admin- istration and the economic system, leading to antagonism and finally breakdown. Alt- hough the starting date is 1549, it is sometimes needed to take recourse to earlier stages in Songhay’s history in order to be able to explain what comes afterwards. As such the names of Askya Mohammed or al-Maghili, a famous North African scholar (died ca. 1505) will also appear here and there. The end date is 1660, when the Arma stopped praying for the Moroccan ruler, which was a clear outward sign that they considered themselves part of the Middle Niger Bend. By going over the divide of 1591, when Songhay fell, it is possible to see which social constructs were carried over and which were modified. Thus it is possible to write an analysis the social groups of the Middle Niger Bend and not “just” writing a history of Songhay or the Arma, which is not the aim here. This study analyses the main groups of the Middle Niger Bend and how they interacted: the Muslim estate, the Songhay ruling estate, the Arma ruling estate and, to a certain extent also other players in society, like slaves. Their interactions are then used to show what ruling systems were erected under Songhay and the Arma and why they worked and why they failed. These social groups did not immediately die when Songhay fell, instead they all lived on, were modified and contested, which is another reason to go beyond 1591 as the history of the peoples of the Middle Niger Bend did not end at that date. What will be shown is that the Songhay Muslim and ruling estate created a commu- nity of sorts that allowed them to renegotiate and communicate through their group boundaries. With this they injected elements of their own thinking into the other group which actually counteracted self-destructive elements of that group, as it provided other ways of renegotiating power and belonging. Although this proved to be the basis for a successful run of rule, it also lay the seeds of destruction as it aligned the aims and want of the different groups of the Middle Niger Bend which led to the stagnation of several systems that were reliant on the social interaction between groups, like the administra- tion and trade. The more they became alike, the more they competed for the same objec- - 9 -