Regional Voices Muslim Indians Struggle for inclusion Amit A. pAndyA Muslim Indians Struggle for Inclusion Amit A. Pandya Copyright © 2010 The Henry L. Stimson Center Library of Congress Control Number: 2010924341 Cover photos: India elections © 2004 Amit Bhargava/Corbis; Indian man at a Vishwa Hindu Parishad rally in New Delhi, India, Prakash Singh AFP/Getty Images Cover design by Free Range Studios/Updated by Shawn Woodley Book design/layout by Nita Congress An electronic version of this publication is available at: www.stimson.org/rv All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior written consent from The Henry L. Stimson Center. The Henry L. Stimson Center 1111 19th Street, NW, 12th Floor Washington, DC 20036 Telephone: 202.223.5956 Fax: 202.238.9604 www.stimson.org Contents Preface ..................................................................................................................................v Acknowledgments .............................................................................................................vii Introduction: The Stimson Center/Institute for Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution Study ..................................................................................................xi The Larger Context ..............................................................................................................1 In Their Own Voices: The Stimson Center/Institute for Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution Study .........................................................................................25 Conclusion .........................................................................................................................53 Appendix 1: Study Framework of Inquiry ........................................................................61 Appendix 2: Regional Voices: Transnational Challenges Partner Institutions .................63 iii The Institute for Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution was estab- lished in January 2007 under the aegis of the Centre for Study of Soci- ety and Secularism, Mumbai. The overarching goal of the Institute is to create enabling conditions for peace and security by creating awareness in the society of factors affecting peace; addressing myths attributed to religious teachings; research and study into communal and sectarian conflicts; capacity building and peace advocacy, especially among youth; and supporting women’s empowerment. IPSCR collaborates with other institutions, including the Tata Insti- tute of Social Science Research, and the Department of Civics and Politics and the Depart- ment of Sociology, University of Mumbai. The Stimson Center, located in Washington, DC, is a nonprofit, non- partisan institution devoted to offering practical solutions to problems of national and international security. Since its establishment in 1989, Stimson has been committed to meaningful impact, a thorough integration of analysis and outreach, and a creative and innovative approach to global security challenges. Stimson has three basic program areas: reducing the threat of weapons of mass destruction, building regional secu- rity, and strengthening institutions of international peace and security. These program areas encompass work on a wide range of issues, from nonproliferation to transnational chal- lenges in Asia, from UN peacekeeping operations to analyzing the resources needed for 21st century statecraft. Preface Stimson’s Regional Voices: Transnational Challenges project is devoted to enhanc- ing the information and analysis available to US policymakers about emerging trans- national security challenges. The project develops knowledge and analysis of the perspec- tives of technical and subject experts, and political and strategic analysts. The geographical range of the project’s work is the Middle East, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and East Africa. The current essay reflects work that was begun in late 2007 and has continued into 2010. It forms part of a series that began with publication in 2008 of Transnational Trends: Mid- dle Eastern and Asian Views. This was followed in 2009 by publications on the political economy of natural resources, climate change and river systems, maritime resources and security in the Indian Ocean, Indian climate policy, and the relationship between Islam and politics. Upcoming publications address maritime commerce, climate change and coastal zones, and migration and urbanization. The overarching framework for our inquiry has consisted of the following questions. How is contemporary public discourse evolving to address new technical, governance, and cultural challenges? How do political structures and cultural traditions constrain or facilitate effective responses? What new opportunities for transnational cooperation do we find? What scientific or technical resources are available? How do social, economic, environmental, technological, and political trends interact? How do these new developments relate to traditional security concerns? What new sources of instability, crisis, or conflict do they present? The present study about the Muslims of India takes an interdisciplinary approach. It weaves together history, politics, culture, and sociology in a series of sections, each focused on a theme or question related to current issues, such as religious and national identity, political participation, violence and extremism, and social and economic disadvantage. In the spirit of the Regional Voices program, we chose to approach this topic in as holistic a manner as possible, recognizing that many factors are at play simultaneously, and cause-and-effect relationships are often hard to discern. We hope that this nonlinear, three-dimensional approach will bring to life the richness and complexity of the topic of India’s Muslims. Ellen Laipson President and CEO, Stimson Center v Acknowledgments Hundreds of Indians, too numerous to name individually, have contributed to the understanding embodied here. They gave generously of their time and thinking; they organized focus groups throughout India; they spent substantial periods of time in discus- sion with their compatriots and in speaking to me in individual interviews. They know who they are, and I thank them from the bottom of my heart. This analysis is in large part the result of their work. The indispensable and equal partner in this enterprise has been Advocate Irfan Engineer of the Institute for Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution. It is he who took the lead in orga- nizing all the focus groups and other meetings and in identifying the essential interlocutors for this inquiry. This initiative would not have been possible without him. My association with him, apart from having been a personal delight, has taught me much about the impor- tant currents of political organizing and thought, and the often heroic struggles under way in Indian society. His essay, “Indian Muslims: Political Leadership and Ideology,” marked the beginning of our practical collaboration on this project.* I am also most grateful to Dr. Asghar Ali Engineer, founder of the Institute of Islamic Stud- ies and the Center for Study of Society and Secularism. He is a giant of Islamic scholarship, widely respected even by those of fundamentally opposed theological perspectives. He is also a leading light in the work of interreligious harmony. I have been fortunate to have been instructed by him in recent years about the history and ideas of Islam, and the varied histories of Muslims. To all the staff and volunteers of the Institute for Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution, the Institute of Islamic Studies, and the Center for Study of Society and Secularism, I offer my deep gratitude. * Amit Pandya and Ellen Laipson, eds., Transnational Trends: Middle Eastern and Asian Views (Washington, DC: Stimson Center, 2008). That essay is an excellent, succinct summary of the phases that Muslim politi- cal leadership has traversed since independence and partition, and the evolution of the contours of political discourse around the salient issues for Muslim Indians. vii viii | Muslim Indians: Struggle for Inclusion Two non-Muslim Indians particularly stand out as invaluable contributors to both my field research and my understanding of the issues discussed here. Mr. V. Balachandran, whose knowledge of Indian policing and intelligence is peerless and is based on his experience in very senior positions in both areas of government service, has been a stalwart collaborator and partner in the wider work of the Regional Voices proj- ect. His contribution to the present study has been inestimably valuable. He has been my guide to the nature and workings of the Indian state, and has introduced me to innumerable retired and serving police and intelligence officials who have added greatly to this study. Mr. R. B. Sreekumar, former Director General of Gujarat Police, and Additional Direc- tor General of Police for Intelligence at the time of the riots, showed great courage and principle in his willingness to challenge and stand up to the fascists, inside and outside government, who visited such suffering upon their Muslim fellow citizens. That he is also a scholar of Hindu thought reminds us of the very real resources within Indian society for the restoration of the syncretic, secular, and tolerant culture which is so essential if India is to remain at peace within. The liberal and humane values of Messrs. Balachandran and Sreekumar, and the principled impartiality of their judgments, do honor and credit to the Indian Police Service, of which both are veterans, and are a testament to the capacity of the institutions of the Indian state to serve its citizens intelligently, effectively, and impartially. None of this would have been possible without the superb Regional Voices team at the Stimson Center. In particular, Nicole Zdrojewski has made the complexities of preparing all our publications—particularly this one—and organizing institutional collaborations and series of events across international and cultural boundaries seem effortless. She has also always been my indispensable support, patient and encouraging, in ensuring that the proj- ect stays on task. Ellen Laipson, President of the Stimson Center, has enthusiastically par- ticipated in, supported, and encouraged this work, as well as offered intellectual guidance and leadership. Former Research Associate Kendra Patterson helped me begin this work on Muslim Indians three years ago, and was as unfailingly competent and professional as any researcher would wish in an associate. I also thank Rachel Kahan and Rebecca Bruening, who provided high-quality research support in the course of our work. Finally, I am grate- ful to Nita Congress for her untiring and uncomplaining work on rendering the manuscript into final form, and to Shawn Woodley for his support on final production of the current publication. I cannot omit acknowledgment of my gratitude for the life and work of Rafiq Zakaria. Although he passed away just a short time before I began this work and I was therefore never able to meet him, his writings have been of inestimable value to me. I know of no Acknowledgments | ix  other contemporary writer who brought such historical, literary, and cultural erudition and acute political intelligence to the task of understanding and explaining Muslim Indians to themselves and to others. His passing leaves a huge gap. I apologize for any inadvertent omissions of others who have helped with the current work. Amit A. Pandya Director, Regional Voices: Transnational Challenges