MUSIC AND MUSICIANS IN THE EQUITY AND COMMON-LAW COURTS OF ENGLAND, 1690–1760 CHERYLL DUNCAN A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the Manchester Metropolitan University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Awarded for a Collaborative Programme of Research at the Royal Northern College of Music by the Manchester Metropolitan University April 2015 Abstract The six journal articles and one book chapter that make up this submission demonstrate the rich potential of legal documents preserved in The National Archives of the UK as sources of new information about music and musicians. Key literature in relation to eighteenth-century legal studies, theatre research, historical musicology and the broader social context is first reviewed in order to appraise the current state of knowledge. Each of the publications takes as its starting point the author’s discovery of one or more lawsuits as a means of exploring professional music culture in England between 1690 and 1760. These encompass a wide diversity of human interactions, including financial agreements, patronage, benefit arrangements, consumption and debt. The litigation also yields details about the professional and personal lives of individuals ranging from iconic figures such as Henry Purcell and George Frideric Handel to minor players like Giuseppe Manfredini and Elizabeth Frederica, whose names have been omitted from previous historical accounts. The publications make an original contribution to existing knowledge and scholarship, thereby demonstrating the value of legal documents as a field of musicological endeavour; while building on previous work on eighteenth-century equity lawsuits, they also include the first detailed studies of common- law documents undertaken by a musicologist. Legal records are notoriously challenging to use, and some of the issues involved in locating, reading and interpreting these abstruse documents are elucidated. The process of contextualization provides opportunities to deploy the material in ways that feed into a variety of historiographical perspectives, including cultural, social and women’s history. Legal documents open up a field of study that is ripe for further investigation; the outcomes will offer new perspectives on music and musicians viewed through the lens of the law, and make a compelling case for the continuing relevance of archival research. CONTENTS 1. Introduction and overview of the literature 1 2. The publications (individually paginated): 2.1 ‘An Innocent Abroad? Caterina Galli’s Finances in New Handel Documents’, Journal of the American Musicological Society, 64/3 (2011), 495-526. 2.2 ‘Geminiani v. Mrs Frederica: Legal Battles with an Opera Singer’, in Christopher Hogwood (ed.), Geminiani Studies (Bologna: Ut Orpheus, 2013), 399-411. 2.3 ‘Castrati and impresarios in London: two mid-eighteenth-century lawsuits’, Cambridge Opera Journal, 24/1 (2012), 43-65. 2.4 ‘‘A Debt contracted in Italy’: Ferdinando Tenducci in a London court and prison’, Early Music, 42/2 (2014), 219–229. 2.5 ‘‘Young, Wild, and Idle’: New Light on Gaetano Guadagni’s Early London Career’, The Opera Journal, 46/1 (2013), 3-28. 2.6 ‘New Purcell documents from the Court of King’s Bench’, Royal Musical Association Research Chronicle, 49 (2016), 1–38 (in the press). 2.7 ‘New light on ‘Father’ Smith and the Organ of Christ Church, Dublin’, Journal of the Society for Musicology in Ireland, 10 (2014–15), 23–45. 3. Contribution to knowledge and scholarship 23 4. Methodological issues and future directions 38 1. INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ‘Civil litigation (legal disputes between two parties) makes up a very large - and under-used - part of the National Archives’ holdings. The records cover disputes about land, property rights, debts, inheritance, trusts, frauds, etc., and they can provide unparalleled levels of information about people in the past.’1 For the musicologist investigating professional music culture in England during the long eighteenth century, legal documents constitute a rich and yet largely untapped repository of primary source material. The names of many individuals associated with the burgeoning entertainment industry are to be found amongst the records of the various courts that comprise the English legal system. An unprecedented expansion in trade, commerce and consumerism during this period, particularly in London, resulted in a sharp escalation in disputes pertaining to business transactions and personal debt; at the same time, commercial music-making was developing in ways that left its practitioners highly susceptible to litigation. With the rise of public entertainments such as opera and concerts, numerous musicians - including many from abroad - were attracted to London by the performance opportunities and lucrative salaries on offer. However, the leisure industry operated within a viciously competitive commercial market; opera, in particular, was enormously expensive to produce, and the notorious fickleness of the tiny minority who could afford tickets made investing in it a very risky financial proposition. At this elite end of the music profession, aristocratic patronage continued to play a pivotal role in the fortunes of performers, who were often obliged to ingratiate themselves with the upper classes in order to further their careers. The lifestyle that many musicians adopted as a consequence usually proved to be beyond their means, and several were brought to the brink of ruin. Both men and women succumbed, though in the case of female singers their misfortune was often attributed to sheer                                                                                                                 1 Amanda Bevan, Tracing your Ancestors in the National Archives: the website and beyond (Kew, Surrey: The National Archives, 7/2006), 495. 1 extravagance and/or improvidence.2 Making a living from music in eighteenth-century England, even at the higher levels of the profession, was a demanding and precarious business. Legal documents can supplement our knowledge of a wide range of social and economic issues pertinent to professional music culture; even more importantly, they can play into a variety of historiographical perspectives that are widely represented in the general historical literature of the long eighteenth century, but have yet to be thoroughly assimilated into the standard musicological discourse about this period. The historical background The eighteenth century was a time of exceptionally rapid and far-reaching change, and the historiography of the period has been subject to numerous shifts of emphasis.3 Before the second half of the twentieth century, Georgian Britain was typically portrayed as ‘an age of stability in politics, in religion, in literature, and in social observances ... the period has a rare unity of its own and seems to concentrate in itself all the faults and merits that we are apt to think of as specially characteristic of the whole eighteenth century’.4 As interest in kingship and politics declined after the 1960s, the focus of research realigned to embrace a bewildering array of historiographical approaches - economic history, social history, urban history, gender history, fashion history and, from the 1990s, cultural history - each with its own substantive literature and key resources. Scholars of this period are in the vanguard of digitizing primary sources and making them available online; to give just one example, the London Lives database includes a huge number of digital and searchable primary sources                                                                                                                 2 See, for example, Burney’s disparaging comments on Cuzzoni and Frasi in Abraham Rees, The Cyclopaedia, or, Universal Dictionary of Arts, Sciences and Literature, 39 vols (London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme & Brown, 1819) 15: [no pagination], s.v. ‘Frasi, Giulia’. 3 For a succinct overview of this subject, see Penelope Corfield, ‘The Lure of the Georgian Age’, History Today, 64/1 (January 2014), 57–8. 4 Basil Williams, rev. C. H. Stuart, The Oxford History of England: The Whig Supremacy, 1714–1760, vol. 11 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1939, rev. 1960), 1. 2 related to the lives of plebeian Londoners.5 The continuing output of significant new studies on eighteenth-century British history is so great that even a brief overview lies well beyond the scope of the present study; the following is merely a small selection of literature that contributes to a broad understanding of the social and cultural context of the period. Pleasures of the Imagination is an important study that charts the broader historical processes through which the arts were commercialized in Georgian England.6 Situating the performing arts, visual arts and print culture at the very heart of eighteenth-century experience, John Brewer argues that the consumption of high culture by the urban middle classes brought about profound transformations in ideas, attitudes, markets and institutions. Studies of the middling classes - their economic activities and their cultural lives - have constituted a major research area since the late 1980s, and the economic history of the era has been reconfigured to reflect social and cultural historical approaches. Among the earliest of these was Peter Earle’s The Making of the English Middle Class, which concentrated on the wealthier end of the social stratum. Earle’s focus on London was unfashionable at a time when many contemporary historians were playing down its significance and decentering attention to the provinces, but he defends its legitimacy on the grounds that the capital ‘totally dominated English urban culture and indeed invented it’.7 The author draws on primary source materials such as marriage and apprenticeship contracts, inventories, wills and divorce hearings to guide the reader through the social structure of London and the complexities of its commercial life from the Restoration to 1730. In The Middling Sort, Margaret Hunt considers                                                                                                                 5 Tim Hitchcock, Robert Shoemaker, Sharon Howard and Jamie McLaughlin, et al., London Lives, 1690–1800 (www.londonlives.org, version 1.1, 24 April 2012). The resource includes over 240,000 manuscript and printed pages from eight London archives, supplemented by fifteen datasets created by other projects. 6 John Brewer, Pleasures of the Imagination: English Culture in the Eighteenth Century (New York: Farrar Straus & Giroux, 1997). 7 Peter Earle, The Making of the English Middle Class: Business, Society and Family Life in London 1660–1730 (London: Methuen, 1989), xi. See also Ian Warren, ‘The English Landed Elite and the Social Environment of London c.1580–1700: the Cradle of an Aristocratic Culture?’, English Historical Review, 126 (2011), 44–74. 3 the lives of middle-class people in England for a slightly later and more extended period, while situating her account within issues raised in the history of consumption.8 Hunt explores a range of sources, including lawsuits and family papers in provincial and metropolitan archives, to reveal complex patterns of sociability that are significantly affected by the experience of commerce. She maps the rise of a fluid social class coping with the demands of the market place, and suggests that it sought identity through its own resourcefulness rather than through emulation of the aristocracy. ‘Middling’ people - women as well as men - had recently become literate and were confident when it came to dealing with bureaucracies; they were certainly not reluctant to resort to law in order to resolve business disputes, for example, or to adjudicate on matters such as debt. Margot Finn’s The Character of Credit is particularly useful for understanding English consumer culture of the eighteenth century.9 Finn demonstrates how personal credit was determined by social identities, with personal credit relations binding family members, friends, servants, neighbours and tradespeople in complex networks of mutual obligation. Part II on ‘Imprisonment for debt and the economic individual’ is essential reading on the experience of personal debtors, and the author skilfully trawls a range of archival sources for revealing case histories. The legal interactions of women are the main subject of Women and Property, in which Amy Louise Erickson studies various records relating to women’s relationship to property and wealth in order to challenge conventional understanding of both marriage and economic history.10 Legal documents such as deeds, bonds, charters, contracts and wills are explored as a means of reconstructing the realities of the everyday lives of women in the context of their material position. Studies of material culture have proliferated since the 1980s, and many disciplines have benefitted from                                                                                                                 8 Margaret R. Hunt, The Middling Sort: Commerce, Gender, and the Family in England 1680–1780 (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of Calfornia Press, 1996). 9 Margot C. Finn, The Character of Credit: Personal Debt in English Culture, 1740–1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003). 10 Amy Louise Erickson, Women and Property in Early Modern England (London and New York: Routledge, 1993). 4 historians’ theories concerning patterns of consumption. So central is the role of consumption to the creation of the modern Western world that the phenomenon has enormous historiographical potential, although this has not yet been fully exploited by musicologists. Neil McKendrick, John Brewer and John H. Plumb’s pioneering study The Birth of a Consumer Society explores sources relating to lower-level professionals, civil servants, tradespeople and others to demonstrate the astonishing diversity of eighteenth-century consumer tastes.11 This work gave rise to a new wave of historical consumption studies that have transformed social and economic historical accounts of early modern Britain and beyond. In Gender, Taste, and Material Culture, a series of discrete essays explores topics ranging from the fashion habits of London’s beau monde to the interior design of a family house in Philadelphia.12 These refine or contest a number of the premises raised by McKendrick et al. including, for example, the emergence of shopping as an eighteenth- century phenomenon. The most recent scholarship is summarized in The History of Consumption, which brings together essays on different eras, continents and topics in order to present the subject in its broadest perspective.13 The legal background There are relatively few modern studies of English legal history for this period, and those that do exist can be daunting to anyone who ventures into the field without a background in the subject. For general reference, The New Oxford Companion to Law and Black’s Law Dictionary both include information that is helpful to an understanding of the historical                                                                                                                 11 Neil McKendrick, John Brewer and J. H. Plumb, The Birth of a Consumer Society: the Commercialization of Eighteenth-Century England (London: Hutchinson, 1983). 12 John Styles and Amanda Vickery (eds), Gender, Taste, and Material Culture in Britain and North America 1700–1830. Studies in British Art 17. (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2006). 13 Frank Trentmann (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of The History of Consumption (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012). 5 context.14 The best general overview of the subject is John Baker’s An Introduction to English Legal History; this provides a brief but useful history of the law courts, together with a succinct account of contract law (especially debt and assumpsit) in language that is accessible to the reader who lacks formal legal training.15 Eventually, it is expected that a much more detailed study of the subject will be provided by the landmark series The Oxford History of the Laws of England, but those volumes relevant to the late seventeenth and eighteenth centuries have yet to be published and no prospective date has been announced.16 The ability to recognise and interpret legal fictions is a crucial skill for anyone working with legal documents, and the clearest account is given in Baker’s The Law’s Two Bodies.17 For guidance on the practice of individual courts, Henry Horwitz has done much to open up the difficult but immensely rich field of equity records to family historians as well as to scholarly researchers. His Chancery Equity Records and Proceedings is a user-friendly guide that provides a class-by-class description of Chancery materials in The National Archives, together with their respective finding aids.18 Although Chancery was England’s leading jurisdiction in equity, the Court of Exchequer also conducted a considerable amount of equitable business throughout the long eighteenth century and is an equally valuable resource for historians. A practical introduction to the subject is provided by Judith Milhous and Robert D. Hume in ‘Eighteenth-century Equity Lawsuits in the Court of Exchequer’.19 The authors summarize and appraise the main document classes, list some of the potential problems that the researcher may encounter, and provide a short survey of the kind of findings that reflect their own interests as theatre historians; among these are subjects of                                                                                                                 14 Peter Cane and Joanne Conaghan (eds), The New Oxford Companion to Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008); Bryan A. Garner (ed.), Black’s Law Dictionary (Minnesota: West Group, 7/1999). 15 J. H. Baker, An Introduction to English Legal History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 4/2007). 16 So far six volumes have been published: 1 (2004), 2 (2012), 6 (2003), 11, 12 and 13 (2010). 17 J. H. Baker, The Law’s Two Bodies: Some Evidential Problems in English Legal History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001). 18 Henry Horwitz, Chancery Equity Records and Proceedings 1600–1800 (London: Public Record Office Handbook 27, 1995). 19 Judith Milhous and Robert D. Hume, 'Eighteenth-century equity lawsuits in the Court of Exchequer as a source for historical research', Historical Research, 70 (1997), 231–46.   6 specific interest to musicologists, including Italian opera in London. Horwitz’s Exchequer Equity Records and Proceedings, published four years later, gives a more detailed account of the various series and their finding aids, and guides the reader systematically through a number of specimen searches.20 Unfortunately, there is as yet no equivalent guide for the common-law courts, and in the absence of any modern manual on common-law practice of the period, the only sources of information lie in guidance on procedure found in eighteenth- century practice books. Possibly the most useful of these is the comprehensive and highly readable Commentaries on the laws of England by Sir William Blackstone, which was the dominant lawbook in England and America in the century following its publication in 1765– 69.21 Other contemporary practice books that provide guidance on the common law include those footnoted below.22 The Gale digital library Eighteenth-Century Collections Online is an invaluable source of this and similar material. Theatre Since the 1960s, the distinguished output of American theatre historians has done much to advance scholarly understanding of English theatre culture from the Restoration to the end of the eighteenth century. This subject is richly endowed with reference tools, and musicologists working in the related field of eighteenth-century theatre are fortunate in having well- organised contextual information available to them. The London Stage 1600–1800 is perhaps the most important work of reference for investigating the theatrical environment in which                                                                                                                 20 Henry Horwitz, Exchequer Equity Records and Proceedings 1649–1841 (London: Public Record Office Handbook 32, 2001). 21 William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England, 4 vols (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1765–1769; facsimile edition, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979). 22 Joseph Harrison, The Present Practice of the Court of King’s Bench (London, 1761); John Impey, The New Instructor Clericalis, stating the Authority, Jurisdiction, and Modern Practice of the Court of King’s Bench (London, 1782); William Tidd, The Practice of the Court of King’s Bench in Personal Actions, 2 parts (London: Strahan and W. Woodfall, 1790–94), and George Wilson, Reports of Cases argued and adjudged in the King’s Courts at Westminster, 3 vols (London, 1799). 7