Muscular strength, fitness and anthropometry in elite junior basketball players Submitted by Eric J Drinkwater B.P.E, M.P.E. School of Human Movement, Recreation and Performance Centre for Ageing, Rehabilitation, Exercise and Sport Victoria University Initial Submission: February, 2006 Revised Submission: August, 2006 A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy Supervisor: Professor Michael J. McKenna School of Human Movement, Recreation and Performance Centre for Ageing, Rehabilitation, Exercise and Sport Victoria University Melbourne, Victoria Australia Co-Supervisor: Associate Professor David B. Pyne Department of Physiology Australian Institute of Sport Canberra, ACT Australia ii This thesis is supported by the following publications: Drinkwater EJ, Hopkins WG, McKenna MJ, Hunt PH, Pyne DB. Characterizing changes in fitness of basketball players within and between seasons, J Sports Sci. In press. Drinkwater EJ, Lawton TW, McKenna MJ, Lindsell RP, Hunt PH, Pyne DB. Strength development and resistance training to repetition failure, J Strength Cond Res. In press. Drinkwater EJ, Galna B, McKenna MJ, Hunt PH, Pyne DB. Validation of an optical encoder during free weight resistance movements and analysis of bench press sticking point power during fatigue, J Strength Cond Res. In press. Drinkwater EJ, Hopkins WG, McKenna MJ, Hunt PH, Pyne DB. Modeling age and secular differences in fitness between junior basketball players. International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport 2005. 5(3): p. 107-125. Drinkwater, E., Lawton, T., Lindsell, R., Pyne, D., Hunt, P., and McKenna, M. Training leading to repetition failure enhances bench press strength gains in elite junior athletes. J Strength Cond Res, 2005. 19(2): p. 382-388. This thesis is supported by the following conference presentations: Drinkwater EJ, Lawton TW, Lindsell RP, Pyne DB, Hunt PH, McKenna MJ. Repetition failure is a key determinant of strength development in resistance training. 51st AGM of the American Collage of Sports Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA. 2-5 June 2004. Drinkwater EJ, Pyne DB, Hopkins WG, Hunt PH, McKenna MJ. Modelling secular and age differences between highly trained junior basketball players on anthropometric and fitness tests. Sports Medicine Australia, Canberra, Australia. 25- 28 October 2003. iii STUDENT DECLARATION “I, Eric Drinkwater, declare that the PhD thesis entitled Muscular strength, fitness and anthropometry in elite junior basketball players is no more than 100,000 words in length, exclusive of tables, figures, appendices, references and footnotes. This thesis contains no material that has been submitted previously, in whole or in part, for the award of any other academic degree or diploma. Except where otherwise indicated, this thesis is my own work.” _________________________________ Eric Drinkwater iv TABLE OF CONTENTS STUDENT DECLARATION......................................................................................III TABLE OF CONTENTS.............................................................................................IV LIST OF TABLES.......................................................................................................IX LIST OF FIGURES......................................................................................................X ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.........................................................................................XI THESIS ABSTRACT...............................................................................................XIII CHAPTER 1: THESIS INTRODUCTION...................................................................1 CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE.................................................................5 2.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................5 2.2 Physical Testing Of Fitness And Anthropometry................................................7 2.2.1 Importance of Body Size and Fitness for Basketball...................................7 2.2.2 Fitness Testing for Basketball....................................................................10 2.2.3 Normal Variations and Changes in Physical Tests...................................14 2.2.4 Changes in Physical Fitness Over a Calender Year..................................16 2.2.5 Concern About Fitness By Coaches...........................................................20 2.2.6 Resistance Training to Improve Fitness....................................................22 2.3 Fatigue And Failure In Resistance Training......................................................36 2.3.1 Overview of muscle contraction.................................................................36 2.3.2 Neural Inhibition........................................................................................39 2.3.3 Metabolic Fatigue and Lactate..................................................................41 2.3.4 Other By-products and Sources of Ionic Imbalance..................................44 2.3.5 Muscular Failure.......................................................................................45 2.4 Training Programs.............................................................................................47 2.4.1 Resistance Training Adaptations and Benefits to Team Sport Athletes.....50 2.4.1.1 Neural Adaptations...................................................................50 2.4.1.2 Fibre Adaptations......................................................................54 2.4.1.3 Metabolic...................................................................................56 2.4.2 Critique of Past Resistance Training Research for Sporting Applications57 2.4.3 Resistance Training To Improve Sport-Specific Power Output.................60 2.4.4 Summary of Benefits of Resistance Training to Athletes...........................63 2.5 Summary............................................................................................................64 2.6 Aims And Hypotheses.......................................................................................67 CHAPTER 3: MODELING AGE AND SECULAR DIFFERENCES IN FITNESS BETWEEN JUNIOR BASKETBALL PLAYERS.....................................................71 3.1 Introduction........................................................................................................71 3.2 Methods..............................................................................................................72 3.2.1 Subjects......................................................................................................72 3.2.2 Experimental Design..................................................................................73 3.2.3 Description of Tests...................................................................................73 3.2.3.1 Anthropometric Measurements.................................................73 3.2.3.2 Fitness Tests..............................................................................74 3.2.4 Fitness Test Reliability...............................................................................74 3.2.5 Statistical Analyses....................................................................................75 3.3 Results................................................................................................................76 v 3.3.1 Fitness Test Reliability...............................................................................76 3.3.2 Level (State versus National).....................................................................77 3.3.3 Gender........................................................................................................79 3.3.4 Age Differences at Recruitment (14-19 y).................................................79 3.3.4.1 Anthropometry...........................................................................79 3.3.4.2 Fitness.......................................................................................80 Figure 3.2 - State male vertical jump.......................................................................82 3.3.5 Secular Differences (1996-2003)...............................................................82 3.3.5.1.Anthropometry...........................................................................82 3.3.5.2 Fitness.......................................................................................82 3.3.5.3 Age.............................................................................................83 3.4 Discussion..........................................................................................................85 3.4.1 Age Differences at Recruitment.................................................................85 3.4.2 Secular Differences....................................................................................86 3.4.3 Program Level and Gender Differences....................................................87 3.4.4 Implications of Test Variability.................................................................89 3.5 Conclusions........................................................................................................91 CHAPTER 4: CHARACTERIZING CHANGES IN FITNESS OF BASKETBALL PLAYERS WITHIN AND BETWEEN SEASONS....................................................92 4.1 Introduction........................................................................................................92 4.2 Methods..............................................................................................................94 4.2.1 Subjects......................................................................................................94 4.2.2 Experimental Design..................................................................................94 4.2.3 Description of Tests...................................................................................95 4.2.3.1 Anthropometric Measurements.................................................95 4.2.3.2 Fitness Tests..............................................................................96 4.2.4 Fitness Test Reliability...............................................................................97 4.2.5 Statistical Analyses....................................................................................97 4.3 Results................................................................................................................99 4.3.1 Phase Changes...........................................................................................99 4.3.2 Years in the Program...............................................................................100 4.3.3 Within-Athlete (Individual) Variation......................................................103 4.3.4 Between-Athlete Variation.......................................................................105 4.4 Discussion........................................................................................................105 4.4.1 Changes in Fitness from Phase to Phase within a Year..........................106 4.4.2 Longitudinal changes from year to year..................................................107 4.4.3 Individual Variation in Fitness................................................................110 4.5 Conclusion.......................................................................................................112 CHAPTER 5: VALIDATION OF A OPTICAL ENCODER DURING FREE WEIGHT RESISTANCE MOVEMENTS AND ANALYSIS OF BENCH PRESS STICKING POINT POWER DURING FATIGUE..................................................113 5.1 Introduction......................................................................................................113 5.2 Methods............................................................................................................115 5.2.1 Approach to the Problem.........................................................................115 5.2.2 Subjects....................................................................................................116 5.2.3 Procedures...............................................................................................117 5.2.3.1 Lifts Evaluated.........................................................................117 5.2.3.2 Optical Encoder......................................................................118 vi 5.2.3.3 Digital Video Recording..........................................................119 5.2.3.4 Training Session......................................................................123 5.2.4 Statistical Analyses..................................................................................123 5.3 Results..............................................................................................................125 5.3.1 Validity.....................................................................................................125 5.3.2 Training Session.......................................................................................127 5.3.2.1 Typical Examples....................................................................127 5.3.2.2 Mean power per repetition (Phases 1-4).................................129 5.3.2.3 Peak power – first phase.........................................................130 5.3.2.4 Low power – second (‘sticking point’) phase..........................131 5.3.2.5 Peak power – third phase........................................................132 5.4 Discussion........................................................................................................133 5.4.1 Validity of the optical encoder in measurements of power......................134 5.4.2 Use of the encoder to detect fatigue effects on power kinetics................135 5.5 Practical Applications......................................................................................136 CHAPTER 6: TRAINING LEADING TO REPETITION FAILURE ENHANCES BENCH PRESS STRENGTH GAINS IN ELITE JUNIOR ATHLETES................139 6.1 Introduction......................................................................................................139 6.2 Methods............................................................................................................141 6.2.1 Experimental Approach to the Problem..................................................141 6.2.2 Subjects....................................................................................................142 6.2.3 Experimental Procedures.........................................................................142 6.2.3.1 6RM Bench press.....................................................................143 6.2.3.2 Bench Throw Power................................................................144 6.2.3.3 Determining the extent of fatigue............................................146 6.2.4 Training Program....................................................................................146 6.2.5 Statistical Analysis...................................................................................148 6.3 Results..............................................................................................................149 6.3.1 Bench Press..............................................................................................149 6.3.2 Bench Throw............................................................................................150 6.3.3 Fatigue and Failure.................................................................................152 6.4 Discussion........................................................................................................153 6.5 Practical Applications......................................................................................157 CHAPTER 7: INCREASED NUMBER OF FORCED REPETITIONS DOES NOT ENHANCE STRENGTH DEVELOPMENT WITH RESISTANCE TRAINING...158 7.1 Introduction......................................................................................................158 7.2 Methods............................................................................................................160 7.2.1 Approach to the Problem.........................................................................160 7.2.2 Subjects....................................................................................................160 7.2.3 Matching of subjects prior to training.....................................................161 7.2.4 Rationale for Experimental Groups.........................................................161 7.2.5 Anthropometric Measures........................................................................163 7.2.6 6RM and 3RM Bench Press.....................................................................164 7.2.7 Bench press throw Power........................................................................164 7.2.8 Optical Encoder.......................................................................................165 7.2.9 Training Program....................................................................................165 7.2.10 Statistical Analysis.................................................................................168 7.3 Results..............................................................................................................169 vii 7.3.1 Pre-Training Testing................................................................................169 7.3.1.1 Relationship between strength and power..............................169 7.3.1.2 Assessing Magnitudes of Change............................................170 7.3.2 Training Analyses....................................................................................170 7.3.2.1 Training Compliance...............................................................170 7.3.2.2 Number of Forced Repetitions................................................171 7.3.3 Kinematic Analysis of Bench Press..........................................................172 7.3.3.1 Concentric time.......................................................................172 7.3.3.2 Total Work...............................................................................172 7.3.3.3 Concentric Mean Power..........................................................174 7.3.4 Effects of Strength Training.....................................................................174 7.3.4.1 Strength and Power Test.........................................................174 7.3.4.2 Anthropometric Changes.........................................................174 7.4 Discussion........................................................................................................175 7.5 Practical Applications......................................................................................177 CHAPTER 8: THESIS DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION..................................179 8.1 Modeling fitness trends....................................................................................179 8.1.1 Differences between newly recruited players..........................................179 8.1.2 Changes within players over time............................................................180 8.2 Resistance Training..........................................................................................181 8.2.1 Gymaware validity to measure bench press kinetics...............................181 8.2.2 Changes in kinetics with fatigue..............................................................182 8.2.3 Bench press training to repetition failure................................................183 8.2.4 Bench press training involving forced repetitions...................................184 8.2.5 Conclusions..............................................................................................186 8.3 Future Directions.............................................................................................187 REFERENCES..........................................................................................................189 APPENDIX A – RAW DATA FOR STUDIES 1 & 2..............................................209 APPENDIX B – RAW DATA FOR STUDY 3.........................................................210 B.1 Mean Power (reference: Figure 5.4)...............................................................210 Subject1..................................................................................................................210 Subject2..................................................................................................................210 Subject3..................................................................................................................210 Subject4..................................................................................................................210 Subject5..................................................................................................................210 Subject6..................................................................................................................210 Subject7..................................................................................................................210 B.2 Peak power, first phase (reference: Figure 5.5)..............................................211 B.3 Low power, second phase (reference: Figure 5.6)..........................................212 B.4 Peak power – third phase (reference: Figure 5.7)...........................................213 B.5 Criterion (Video) versus Practical (Gymaware) Power Output (reference: Table 5.1).........................................................................................................................214 APPENDIX C – RAW DATA FOR STUDY 4.........................................................217 C.1 Fitness Tests (reference: Figure 6.1 and 6.2)..................................................217 APPENDIX D – RAW DATA FOR STUDY 5........................................................218 D.1 Fitness Tests (reference: Table 7.3 and Figure 7.1)........................................218 viii D.2 Failure and Training Compliance Rates (reference: Table 7.4)......................219 D.3 Total Concentric Duration per Training Session (reference: Table 7.4).........220 D.4 Total Work Performed per Training Session (reference: Table 7.4)..............221 D.5 Mean power per training session (reference: Table 7.4).................................222 APPENDIX E – UNSUCCESSFUL SQUAT TRAINING STUDY – ASSESSMENT OF SQUAT RESISTANCE TRAINING PROGRAM CONFIGURATION ON DEVELOPING STRENGTH AND COURT-SPECIFIC POWER...........................223 E.1 Preface.............................................................................................................223 E.2 Introduction.....................................................................................................223 E.3 Methods...........................................................................................................225 E.3.1 Subjects....................................................................................................225 E.3.2 Overview of Experimental Design...........................................................225 E.3.3 Anthropometric Measures.......................................................................226 E.3.4 6RM and 3RM Squat Testing...................................................................227 E.3.5 Jump Squat Power...................................................................................228 E.3.6 Sport-Specific Court Tests.......................................................................228 E.3.7 Training Analysis.....................................................................................229 E.3.8 Training Program....................................................................................229 E.3.9 Statistical Analysis...................................................................................231 E.4 Results.............................................................................................................231 E.4.1 Training Group Analysis.........................................................................232 E.4.2 Anthropometry.........................................................................................233 E.4.3 Strength Testing.......................................................................................233 E.4.4 Power Testing..........................................................................................233 E.4.5 Court Tests...............................................................................................234 E.5 Discussion........................................................................................................234 ix LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1 - Anthropometry and physical fitness test scores…………………….13 Table 2.2 – Fitness changes in a periodised program…………………………...18 Table 2.3 - The use of resistance training in improving performance in court sport related tests……………………………………………...25 Table 2.4 - The use of resistance training in improving performance in sporting event related tests…………………………………………..27 Table 2.5 - The use of resistance training in improving performance in laboratory-based tests…………………………………………..……31 Table 3.1 - Differences between levels of players……………………….…...…78 Table 4.1 - Within-player variations in fitness………………………………….104 Table 5.1 - Validity of Gymaware™ optical encoder power calculation compared with video (criterion measure) power calculations……....126 Table 6.1 - Number of sets trained in each session at each of the weekly training intensities expressed as a percent of 6RM…………..……..148 Table 7.1 - Summary of Age and Anthropometric Measures of Participants......162 Table 7.2 - Summary of training group programs illustrating differences in training intensity as a percent of 6RM, starting time, and the number of repetitions performed in each set……………..……..167 Table 7.3 - Summary of pre-training strength and power testing comparing groups………………………………………………………..……...170 Table 7.4 - Comparison between groups on kinetic analysis……………..….…173 Table E.1- Anthropometric, strength and power characteristics in team sport athletes before and after six-weeks of high intensity resistance training…………………………………………..…….…232 x LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1 – Adolescent changes in body mass………………………………..15 Figure 2.2 – Adolescent changes in height…………………………………….15 Figure 2.3 – Action Potential…………………………………………………..37 Figure 2.4 – Neuromuscular feedback mechanisms…………………………...41 Figure 2.5 – ATP resynthesis…………………………………………………..42 Figure 2.6 – Four regions of the bench press…………………………………..53 Figure 3.1 – Age trends in group fitness……………………………………….81 Figure 3.2 - State male vertical jump…………………………………………..82 Figure 3.3 - Age trends in group fitness………………………………………..84 Figure 4.1 – Within season changes in fitness…………………………………101 Figure 4.2 – Changes in fitness with years in the program…………………….102 Figure 5.1 - Gymaware™ optical encoder hardware…………………………..120 Figure 5.2 - Typical output from the Gymaware™ software (Example 1)…….128 Figure 5.3 – Typical output from the Gymaware™ software (Example 2)……129 Figure 5.4 – Mean bench press power…………………………………………130 Figure 5.5 – Peak power of first phase………………………………………...131 Figure 5.6 – Sticking point low power…………………………………………132 Figure 5.7 – Peak power of third phase………………………………………...133 Figure 6.1 - Comparison of 6RM (kg) in the repetition rest and repetition failure groups……………………………………………………….150 Figure 6.2 - Comparison of Smith Machine bench throw (W) in the repetition rest and repetition failure groups…………...……………152 Figure 7.1 – Changes in strength and power of different groups……………….171