For Educators, Gardeners, Farmers, Foresters, and Landscapers Agroforestry Guides for Pacific Islands “Well-researched, concise, user-friendly...an invaluable practical resource for those working to conserve and expand the use of trees in agricultural systems.” —APANews, The Asia-Pacific Agroforestry Newsletter FAO Regional Office, Bangkok, Thailand “A significant contribution to public education, advancing the cause of integrated agriculture and forestry...a resource of lasting value.” —The Permaculture Activist, North Carolina “A most excellent handbook...a wonderful resource.” —Developing Countries Farm Radio Network, Toronto, Canada “Eloquently makes a case for reintroducing and emphasizing trees in our island agriculture.” —Dr. Bill Raynor, Program Director, The Nature Conservancy, Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia “Provides a real clearinghouse on traditional and modern agroforestry not only for Pacific Islands, also very useful for other regions.” —ILEIA Newsletter for Low External Input and Sustainable Agriculture, The Netherlands Purchase the book at http://www.agroforestry.net/afg/ Agroforestry Guides for Pacific Islands edited by Craig R. Elevitch and Kim M. Wilkinson Price: $24.95 (plus shipping) Availability: Usually ships within one business day. Paperback - 240 pages, illustrated and fully indexed Release date: September, 2000 ISBN: 0970254407 Publisher: Permanent Agriculture Resources, P.O. Box 428, Holualoa, HI, 96725, USA. Tel: 808-324-4427, Fax: 808-324-4129, email: [email protected] Agroforestry Guides for Pacific Islands #2 Multipurpose Trees for Agroforestry in the Pacific Islands by Randolph R. Thaman, Craig R. Elevitch, and Kim M. Wilkinson www.agroforestry.net Multipurpose Trees for Agroforestry in the Pacific Islands Abstract: The protection and planting of trees in agroforestry systems can serve as an important, locally achievable, and cost-effective step in sustainable development in the Pacific Islands. Traditional agroforestry practices once made Pacific Islanders among the most self-sufficient and well-nourished peoples in the world. Time-tested, locally available species are the most effective foundation for future agroforestry development. This guide introduces some traditional Pacific Island agroforestry systems and principles, and examines important multipurpose trees used in the region. Keywords: agroforestry, agrodeforestation, diversity, ethnobotany, indigenous knowledge, multipurpose, Pacific Islands, sustainable, trees Contents Introduction 3 Selecting Trees for New MSA Systems 14 Pacific Island Trees and Their Importance 3 Planning for the Future: A Note on Genetic Challenges of the 21st Century 4 Diversity 16 Definition of Agroforestry 4 A Note on Potentially Invasive Species 16 Phases in Traditional Pacific Island Agroforestry Important Agroforestry Species 17 Systems 4 Products/Use Table 17 Agriculturalization of the Forest 5 Multipurpose Species Pacific Island Uses 18 Indigenous Agroforestry Enrichment and Multipurpose Species Characteristics and Deforestation 5 Tolerances 23 Colonial Agroforestry Enrichment and Common Names, Origin and Presence in Pacific Agrodeforestation 6 Islands 28 Post-World War II Agroforestry Enrichment and Species Lists by Product 39 Accelerated Agrodeforestation 7 Resources and Recommended Reading 41 21st Century MSA 8 Local Assistance 41 Agroforestry Development: Seven Principles Of Resources for Further Reading 41 Traditional Pacific Island Agroforestry Systems 8 Organizations 43 Multipurpose Trees: Definition and Examples 9 Periodicals 44 Examples of Three Pacific Island Multipurpose Trees 9 Acknowledgments 45 Pacific Island Examples of Agroforestry Systems 10 About the Authors 45 Restoring MSA Systems and Species 13 References 45 Authors: Randolph R. Thaman, Craig R. Elevitch and Kim M. Wilkinson, Illustrator: Christi A. Sobel Reproduction: We encourage you to share this information with others. All or part of this publication may be repro- duced for noncommercial educational purposes only, with credit given to the source. For commercial reproductions, contact the publisher. © 2000 Permanent Agriculture Resources. All rights reserved. Electronic distribution: Download this publication and others in the series at http://www.agroforestry.net Publisher: Permanent Agriculture Resources, P.O. Box 428, Holualoa, HI 96725 USA; Tel: 808-324-4427; Fax: 808- 324-4129; E-mail: [email protected]; Web site: http://www.agroforestry.net Citation: Thaman, R.R., C.R. Elevitch, and K.M. Wilkinson. 2000. Multipurpose Trees for Agroforestry in the Pacific Islands. Agroforestry Guides for Pacific Islands #2. Permanent Agriculture Resources, Holualoa, Hawaii, USA. Web site: http://www.agroforestry.net Sponsor: Publication of this guide was made possible through a grant from the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Western Region Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education (WSARE) Program. This material is based upon work supported by the Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and Agricultural Experiment Station, Utah State University, under Coop- erative Agreement under 98-COOP-1-6481. 3 Introduction This guide provides an introduction to Pacific Island agroforestry for extension agents and growers. Species and systems that are time-tested and successful in the Pacific Island region are examined as a foundation for future development. Several lists and tables are included in appendices, providing details for 130 multipurpose trees that are important components of existing agroforestry systems throughout the Pacific Islands. Pacific Island Trees and Their Importance Traditional Pacific Island agricultural and land use systems were built on a foun- dation of protecting and planting trees. Trees are essential to the life support systems for humans, plants, and animals. Trees protect the land from erosion, and homes, farms and coastlines from strong winds and waves. They make soils fertile and keep streams, lagoons, and coral reefs clean and clear. Trees also provide food and countless other products for humans, animals, and plants. Most of these products and services are impossible to replace or purchase. Table 1 presents some of the benefits and of trees. Table 1. Some ecological and cultural functions and uses of trees in the Pacific islands Ecological Shade Soil Improvement Animal/Plant Habitats Erosion Control Frost Protection Flood/Runoff Control Wind Protection Air Purification Weed/Disease Control Water Pollution Control Wild Animal Food Marine Animal Food Cultural/Economic Timber (commercial) Cages/Roosts Prop or Nurse Plants Timber (subsistence) Parcelization/Wrapping Staple foods Fuel wood Abrasives Supplementary Foods Illumination/Torches Fertility Control Emergency Foods Rubber Insulation Wild Foods Tools Decoration Preservatives Weapons Hunting Body Ornamentation Oils Containers Cordage/Lashing Beverages Woodcarving Glues/Adhesives Insect Repellents Handicrafts Caulking Scents/Perfumes Fishing Equipment Fiber/Fabric Deodorants Weaving/Plaiting Commercial Products Dyes Toys Export Products Medicines Musical Instruments Ritual Exchange Poisons Tannin Secret Meeting Sites Recreation Adapted from Thaman and Clarke 1987 Because of the importance of trees, Pacific Island peoples have always planted and protected trees as a part of their multi-species agroforestry and land use systems. They have also always been willing to accept new trees that can improve their lives and their island environments. Thaman/Elevitch/Wilkinson Multipurpose Trees for Agroforestry in the Pacific Islands 4 Challenges of the 21st Century As we enter the 21st Century, modern development has led to a net loss of trees in agricultural systems throughout the Pacific Islands. This process has been referred to as agrodeforestation. There is an urgent need for the protection and planting of trees as integral parts of agricultural systems. For the Pacific Islands, appropriate agroforestry devel- opment can play a key role in reversing the trends of deforestation, forest degra- dation, and agrodeforestation. The emphasis on the protection, as well as the planting, of these species and agroforestry systems is of utmost importance. Experience has shown that it is far more difficult to replace forests, agroforests, trees, and rare cultivars (cultivated varieties) of trees than it is to protect what already exists. It is stressed that agroforestry development should not be imposed from outside the Pacific Islands on the basis of exotic species. Rather, it should be multi-species agroforestry (MSA) based firmly on the many time-tested agrofor- estry species that already exist in the Pacific Islands, strengthened, where appro- priate, with some new introduced trees and technologies. The protection and planting of these and other appropriate trees could serve as an important, locally achievable, and cost-effective first step in promoting sustainable development in the rapidly modernizing island countries of the tropical Pacific. Definition of Agroforestry The main objectives of agroforestry activities are to plant and protect trees and forests, and to ensure the continued provision of the services and economic prod- ucts they provide. Although there are numerous definitions of agroforestry, one that reflects the nature of existing Pacific Island agroforestry systems is: Agroforestry is the deliberate planting and protection of trees and for- ests in and around agricultural systems in both rural and urban areas, in order to improve or maintain the short-term and long-term economic productivity, cultural utility, and ecological stability of agricultural sys- tems (adapted from Thaman and Clarke 1993a). Phases in Traditional Pacific Island Agroforestry Systems Thousands of years of observation, study, and experimentation by Pacific Island peoples produced a diversity of highly sophisticated multi-species agroforestry systems. A large body of traditional knowledge relating to these systems was also developed. The term “traditional,” rather than “indigenous,” is used to stress that Pacific agroforestry systems have also been developed by nonindigenous peoples who have acquired valuable agroforestry knowledge and skills through hands-on experience living in the Pacific Island environment. The evolution of these traditional systems has taken place over a number of relatively distinct periods of growth or change. These include: • agriculturalization of the forest • indigenous agroforestry enrichment and deforestation • colonial agroforestry enrichment and agrodeforestation • post-World War II agroforestry enrichment and accelerated agrodeforestation • 21st Century agroforestry re-enrichment. Agroforestry Guides for Pacific Islands www.agroforestry.net 5 Table 2. Periods of the growth or change in Pacific Island agroforestry systems since the first colonization of the islands by indigenous Pacific Islanders. Period Time Frame Agriculturalization of the Forest 40,000 – 1000 B.P. Indigenous Agroforestry Enrichment and 40,000 – 1,000 B.P.* deforestation 1600 A.D. – late 20th Colonial Agroforestry Enrichment and Century** Agrodeforestation Post-World War II Agroforestry Enrichment late 1940s - present and Accelerated Agrodeforestation 21st Century Agroforestry Re-enrichment and Multi-species Agroforestry 2000 A.D. onwards Development Notes: B.P. = years before present; * indicates that, because different island groups were settled at different times, this period began at different times in different island groups; ** the colonial period varies in length, and continues in some cases, for different Pacific Island nations and territories Agriculturalization of the Forest With the first human settlement of the Pacific Islands, there began the selective modification of natural forests. This period commenced in Papua New Guinea, and probably Solomon Islands, some 40,000 years ago, just under 4,000 years ago in Eastern Melanesia, Western Polynesia and Western Micronesia, and as recently as 1,000 years ago or less in parts Eastern Polynesia and Eastern Micro- nesia. These first settlers selectively cleared, protected, and used different species from their inland and coastal forests. They also deliberately or accidentally intro- duced a range of plant and animal species. During this period of low population densities, coastal and inland forests were cleared for settlements and cropping. Trees and other plants were used for construction, boat building, firewood, medicine, and other purposes. The use of fire for agricultural clearance, hunting, and recreation led to some deforestation and the expansion of grasslands and scrublands. Indigenous Agroforestry Enrichment and Deforestation After the first settlements were well-established, there was a period of indigenous agroforestry enrichment and deforestation. This period lasted for tens of thou- sands of years in Papua New Guinea, and from about eight hundred to over three thousand years for most of the islands of Melanesia, Polynesia and Micronesia. During this era, successive waves of new Pacific Islanders voyaging to the islands, settlement of new islands by existing islanders, and inter-island trade between islands occurred. This led to the introduction of new trees, plants, and animals and the continued enrichment of existing agroforestry systems by the Pacific Island inhabitants. Addition, rather than elimination, of species and culti- vars took place. Existing multi-species systems were enriched, rather than eroded. Thaman/Elevitch/Wilkinson Multipurpose Trees for Agroforestry in the Pacific Islands 6 Figure 1. Indigenous Pacific Island agroforestry system depicting breadfruit, coconut, banana, Cananga odorata, Inocarpus fagifer, Hibiscus tiliaceus with: taro, sweet potatoes, yams (Dioscorea spp.), and kava. Growing population also brought increasing deforestation and forest degra- dation, the spread of treeless grasslands, and increasing environmental degra- dation. These losses occurred from the highlands of New Guinea to Hawaii and Easter Island in Eastern Polynesia. There was also the extinction of birds, insects, and other plants and animals that depended on trees and forests as habitats and sources of food. Agricultural intensification began to take place. Extensive multi-species (polycultural) agricultural systems were replaced by more intensive single-species (monocultural) production of crops such as Colocasia taro and sweet potato. However, the planting and protection of a wide range of useful multipurpose trees remained an integral component of these systems. Colonial Agroforestry Enrichment and Agrodeforestation For most of the past 200 years, colonial governments actively promoted small- and large-scale monocultural export cropping and livestock grazing. Particularly in the 20th Century until the end of World War II, there was very little emphasis on the promotion or the maintenance of existing MSA systems. Major export crops included coconut, cocoa, sugarcane, coffee, bananas, and pineapple. Citrus trees, tea, passion fruit, black pepper, oil palm, rubber, and a range of vegetables and fruits were also grown as minor export crops in some areas. Livestock schemes, mainly involving beef cattle, were widely promoted during the colonial era. On one hand, the introduction of these new crops and animals enriched existing indigenous Pacific Island agroforestry systems, particularly indigenous smallholder farms. However, the drive to encourage a narrow range of cash crops and livestock grazing, plus the development of colonial towns, led to accelerated clearance of forest lands, and the destruction of valuable trees in and around existing agricultural lands (i.e., agrodeforestation). Because export crops Agroforestry Guides for Pacific Islands www.agroforestry.net 7 commonly occupied the best agricultural lands nearest settlements, food gardens (often gardens tended by women) were pushed farther from settlements and onto increasingly marginal lands. During this period, most Pacific Islander agroforesters were able to selectively adopt plants, animals, and technologies that they saw as beneficial. Adopted species included tropical American crops, such as cassava, pineapple, and avocado, as well as other post-European contact introductions from Asia, such as eggplant, onions, mango, and tamarind. These species were integrated into and enriched existing systems, rather than replacing traditional crops and trees. Even cattle, horses, and goats were integrated into many smallholder systems with limited disruption. At the same time, some crops or cultivars and wild or cultivated trees lost importance relative to the new cash crops and pastures, and began to disappear from the Pacific Island agricultural landscape. Post-World War II Agroforestry Enrichment and Accelerated Agrodeforestation World War II brought the Pacific Islands into greater contact with the outside world. Links were also strengthened with main islands, capital cities, and over- seas metropolitan areas. This led to increasing desire for consumer goods and cash incomes, and increasing access to markets. Pressures to plant cash crops and to promote monocultural plantation agriculture and forestry intensified. Agricultural departments almost exclusively promoted export cropping, at the expense of the traditional systems. There was an expansion of monocultures of export crops such as coffee, sugarcane, coconut palms, bananas, and pineapple. Forestry departments promoted the unsustainable felling of indigenous timber trees for export and local milling, or the planting of exotic plantation forests. Monocultures replaced coastal and inland forests and trees and food crops in many countries. In some cases (including Fiji, Tonga, the Cook Islands, Hawaii, and Kiribati), traditional agroforestry practices were actively discouraged while export cropping was encouraged. As a result, traditional agroforestry-based food systems have deteriorated. Urbanized Pacific Island populations now have some of the highest rates of nutritional disorders and nutrition-related noncommuni- cable diseases in the world. Figure 2. Post-colonial/plantation agroforestry showing coconut with understory of coffee, kava, taro, pineapple, and cassava. Thaman/Elevitch/Wilkinson Multipurpose Trees for Agroforestry in the Pacific Islands 8 Formal schooling in agriculture and forestry ignored the traditional agrofor- estry systems and the importance of multipurpose trees. As a result, as the older people passed away, there occurred a widespread loss of traditional agroforestry knowledge among the younger generations. 21st Century MSA The active promotion of MSA into the 21st Century may be the most economi- cally, culturally, and ecologically effective means of addressing the serious trends of deforestation and agrodeforestation. This would be in contrast to the monocul- tural models now often promoted (Clarke and Thaman 1993). Instead, new sources of cash income, new technologies, and new crops and trees would add to, rather than replace, degrade or destroy the trees and forests that already exist in agricultural areas. The emphasis of MSA is to ensure that additions or improve- ments maximize the existing plant resources and agroforestry practices as a foun- dation for sustainable development, while at the same time minimizing the loss of the existing trees and agroforestry resources and knowledge. Figure 3. Modern/urban agroforest home garden. Upper story: mango, breadfruit. Middle story: banana, citrus, papaya, avocado. Lower story/ edge: taro, cassava, Pacific spinach, sugarcane, pineapple, chili pepper, tomato. Agroforestry Development: Seven Principles Of Traditional Pacific Island Agroforestry Systems Creating agroforestry systems in the 21st century requires an appreciation of the success of these systems, and the ability to expand on their success for productive plantings to meet modern needs. Traditional Pacific Island MSA systems rested on seven principles that made their continuous operation possible over centuries or millennia. As stressed by Clarke (1977), the systems: • Did not depend on external energy subsidies or extra-system nutrient sources—i.e., no imported fuel, fertilizers, or other imports were required; • Did not receive applications of poisonous agricultural chemicals or other pollutants; • Had strongly positive net energy yields—i.e., for every joule of energy invested, 18-20 joules of food energy were returned; • Used only renewable resources as inputs—e.g., trees for fencing, ash as Agroforestry Guides for Pacific Islands www.agroforestry.net 9 fertilizer—rather than imported, often nonrenewable, inputs such as inorganic fertilizers derived from phosphate deposits or fossil fuels that took millions of years to form; • Were structured so that the resources supporting agriculture (energy, land, vegetation) were equitably spread throughout the community rather than being concentrated in the hands of a few or in urban areas; • Contained resources that were looked upon as productive capital to be preserved—i.e., attempts were made to preserve for future generations a habitat and set of resources only slightly modified from what parents had themselves inherited; and • Were based on a diversity of tree and nontree crops, wild plants, and animals rather than on monocultures or specialized animal production. Multipurpose Trees: Definition and Examples While all trees can be said to serve several purposes, such as shade, soil protec- tion, and wildlife habitat, some trees are especially valued for their many uses and products. Such trees are called multipurpose trees. Pacific Island peoples dis- covered many ways to make efficient use of the different parts of useful trees. They also learned to value the many ecological functions of trees and the services they provide. Multipurpose trees are favored in traditional agroforestry systems because of their ability to provide many different products, improve the overall yields on a single piece of land, increase economic security (by providing a con- tinuous supply of both cash and subsistence products), and improve agricultural sustainability due to the relatively permanent nature of trees. Examples of Three Pacific Island Multipurpose Trees To illustrate the concept of multipurpose trees, brief examples of the uses and products from three Pacific Island agroforestry trees are provided. Greater detail for these trees and other important multipurpose trees is included in the tables below. Coconut Palm (Cocos nucifera) The flesh from the mature brown nut is a major staple food and animal food. It is also dried and made into copra, which is an important export product from most island coun- tries. Juice from inside the immature green nut is an important drink and source of safe drinking water on dry islands and in times of drought. The sap from the flower stalk is used to make fresh and fer- mented toddy. The fresh toddy is an important nutritious bev- erage on atolls and the fer- mented toddy is a locally available alcoholic beverage. The timber is used for many Coconut (Cocos nucifera) purposes. The trunk, fronds, shells, and husks are a major source of fuel. The roots are used for making fish traps, and the husk fiber is used to make sennit (cord) used for lashing canoes and houses and for other purposes. The shell is used to make drinking cups, contain- Thaman/Elevitch/Wilkinson Multipurpose Trees for Agroforestry in the Pacific Islands