MOTIVATION FOR ACHIEVEMENT Possibilities for Teaching and Learning This page intentionally left blank MOTIVATION FOR ACHIEVEMENT Possibilities for Teaching and Learning Second Edition M. Kay Alderman The University of Akron LAWRENCE ERLBAUM ASSOCIATES, PUBLISHERS 2004 Mahwah, New Jersey London Senior Acquisitions Editor: Naomi Silverman Editorial Assistant: Erica Kica Cover Designer: Kathryn Houghtaling Lacey Production Manager: Paul Smolenski Full-Service Compositor: TechBooks Text and Cover Printer: United Graphics Incorporated This book was typeset in 11/13 pt. New Century SchoolBook, Italic, Bold, Bold Italic. The heads were typeset in Friz Quadrata, Italic and Bold. Copyright © 2004 by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microfilm, retrieval system, or any other means, without prior written permission of the publisher. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers 10 Industrial Avenue Mahwah, New Jersey 07430 www.erlbaum.com Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Alderman, M. Kay. Motivation for achievement: possibilities for teaching and learning / M. Kay Alderman.- 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8058-4309-4 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Motivation in education. 2. Academic achievement. I. Title. LB1065.A477 2004 370.15'4-dc21 2003011800 Books published by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates are printed on acid-free paper, and their bindings are chosen for strength and durability. Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 21 Brief Contents I: SETTING THE STAGE FOR MOTIVATIONAL POSSIBILITIES 1 Motivation: Problems, Possibilities, and Perspectives 3 II: SOCIAL-COGNITIVE PROCESSES THAT INFLUENCE MOTIVATION 2 Attributional Beliefs and Motivation 27 3 Concepts of Ability and Motivation 66 4 Goals and Goal Setting 105 5 Developing Student Self-Regulatory Capabilities 132 III: THE CLASSROOM CLIMATE FOR OPTIMAL ENGAGEMENT AND MOTIVATION 6 Teacher Motivation: Expectations and Efficacy 169 7 Promoting Optimal Motivation and Engagement: Social Context 201 8 Tasks, Recognition, and Evaluation for Optimal Engagement and Motivation 233 9 Implementing Motivation Strategies in the Classroom 271 This page intentionally left blank Contents Preface xv I: SETTING THE STAGE FOR MOTIVATIONAL POSSIBILITIES 1 Motivation: Problems, Possibilities, and Perspectives 3 Problems and Challenges: Achievement and Motivation 4 Effort and Ability Framework 4 Motivational Inequality as a Problem and Challenge 6 Motivational Challenges Related to Educational Reform 9 Motivation Possibilities and Goals 11 What Is Optimum Motivation? 12 The School's and Teacher's Roles 13 Motivation Perspectives for Classroom Learning 16 Denning Motivation 18 Social-Cognitive Approach to Motivation 19 Review of Major Points 22 II: SOCIAL-COGNITIVE PROCESSES THAT INFLUENCE MOTIVATION 2 Attributional Beliefs and Motivation 27 Attributional Properties in Achievement Settings 29 Descriptions of Attributional Thinking: Content and Dimensions 29 Sources of Attributional Information 32 vii viii CONTENTS Direct Attributional Cues 32 Indirect Attributional Cues 33 Attributional Bias 34 Emotional Reactions Generated by Attributions 36 Shift in Expectancies After Success and Failure 36 Using Attributional Information 38 Individual and Situational Differences in Attributions 39 Situational Differences in Attributions 39 Developmental Differences in Attributions 40 Gender and Attributions 41 Attributions and Motivation Among Ethnic Groups 42 Beliefs About Effort and Ability 42 Implications for Teachers 44 Two Attributional Consequences: Learned Helplessness and Help Seeking 45 Learned Helplessness 45 Helpless and Mastery Orientation 46 Learned Helplessness and Students With Learning Disabilities 47 Help Seeking 49 Teacher Attributional Beliefs and Student Performance 51 Attribution Retraining 54 Effort and Ability Attribution Retraining 55 Self-Instruction 56 Antecedent Information 56 Retraining for Students With LD 57 Guidelines for Attributional Feedback 58 Developing Adaptive Attributions 61 Review of Major Points 63 3 Concepts of Ability and Motivation 66 Self-Perceptions of Ability: an Overview 66 Self-Efficacy Beliefs 69 Self-Efficacy Influences in Academic Tasks 70 Sources of Self-Efficacy Judgments 71 Task Accomplishments 72 Vicarious Experiences 72 CONTENTS ix Verbal Persuasion 73 Physiological State 73 Development of Self-Efficacy 74 Identification and Awareness of Efficacy Beliefs 74 Strengthening Self-Efficacy 75 Goals, Feedback, Rewards, and Verbalization 76 Participant Modeling 77 Using Self-Efficacy in the Classroom 78 Self-Worth Theory: Self-Protection of Perceived Ability 81 Classroom Practices and Self-Worth Protection 81 Failure—Avoidance Strategies 82 Low Effort 82 Self-Handicapping 83 Guarantee of Success 84 Self-Worth, Failure-Avoiding Strategies, and Minority Students 85 Achievement Goal Orientation 86 Contrasting Achievement Goal Orientations 87 Learning Goal 87 Performance Goal 88 Influences on Achievement Goals 89 Theory of Intelligence 89 Contextual Influences 90 Effects of Goal Orientation on Student Achievement 91 Cognitive Strategies and Engagement 91 Motivational Beliefs and Actions 92 Classroom Practices That Foster Learning Goals and Positive Competence Evaluation 93 Evaluation of Competence and Achievement Anxiety 97 Explanations of Achievement Anxiety 97 Cognitive Interference and Skill Deficit 98 Motivational Explanations 98 Strategies for Alleviating Debilitating Test Anxiety 99 Concluding Thoughts 100 Review of Major Points 101