Modern Kashmiri Grammar Omkar N Koul Kashi Wali Dunwoody Press Springfield Copyright © 2006 McNeil Technologies, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without prior written permission from the copyright owners. All inquiries should be directed to: Dunwoody Press 6564 Loisdale Ct., Suite 800 Springfield, VA 22150, USA ISBN: 1-931546-07-X Library of Congress Control Number: 2004113176 Printed and bound in the United States of America Contents Preface....................................................................................................i Abbreviations......................................................................................iii References............................................................................................iv 1. Introduction 1.1. Area and Speakers.......................................................................1 1.2. Classification and Dialects..........................................................1 1.3. Unique Characteristics.................................................................3 1.4. Script...........................................................................................3 1.5. Status of Kashmiri.......................................................................4 1.6. Literature.....................................................................................5 1.7. Grammars in Kashmiri................................................................8 2. Phonology 2.1. Segmentals...................................................................................9 2.1.1. Vowels....................................................................................9 2.1.1.1. Articulation of Vowels......................................................9 2.1.1.2. Nasal Vowels...................................................................12 2.1.2. Consonants...........................................................................12 2.1.2.1. Articulation of Consonants..............................................12 2.1.2.2. Palatalization...................................................................15 2.2. Suprasegmentals........................................................................16 2.2.1. Length...................................................................................16 2.2.2. Stress.....................................................................................16 2.2.3. Intonation..............................................................................16 2.3. Phonotactics...............................................................................17 2.3.1. Distribution of Vowels.........................................................17 2.3.2. Vowel Sequences..................................................................18 2.3.3. Phonological Changes in Loanwords...................................18 2.3.4. Consonant Clusters...............................................................19 2.3.4.1. Word-initial Consonant Clusters.....................................19 2.3.4.2. Word-medial Consonant Clusters....................................19 2.3.4.3. Word-final Consonant Clusters.......................................20 2.3.5. Syllable Structure.................................................................20 2.4. Morphophonology.....................................................................21 2.4.1. Alternations..........................................................................21 2.4.2. Deletion and Insertion...........................................................22 2.4.3. Allomorphs...........................................................................23 3. Morphology 3.1. Nouns.........................................................................................25 3.1.1. Gender..................................................................................26 3.1.2. Number.................................................................................28 3.1.3. Case......................................................................................31 3.1.4. Postpositions.........................................................................39 3.1.4.1. Functions of Postpositions...............................................41 3.2. Pronouns....................................................................................51 3.2.1. Personal Pronouns................................................................51 3.2.2. Demonstrative Pronouns.......................................................54 3.2.3. Indefinite Pronouns...............................................................55 3.2.4. Relative Pronouns.................................................................56 3.2.4.1. Other Relative Words......................................................57 3.2.5. Reflexive Pronouns...............................................................58 3.2.6. Reciprocals...........................................................................59 3.2.7. Interrogative Pronouns..........................................................59 3.2.8. Compound Pronouns............................................................61 3.3. Adjectives..................................................................................62 3.3.1. Numerals / Quantifiers..........................................................63 3.3.1.1. Aggregatives....................................................................65 3.3.1.2. Fractions..........................................................................66 3.3.1.3. Multiplicatives.................................................................66 3.3.1.4. Quantifiers.......................................................................66 3.3.1.5. Approximation.................................................................67 3.3.1.6. Emphatic Forms...............................................................67 3.4. Verbs.........................................................................................67 3.4.1. Verb Stems...........................................................................67 3.4.2. Classification of Verbs.........................................................68 3.4.2.1. Intransitives.....................................................................68 3.4.2.2. Transitives.......................................................................69 3.4.2.3. Causatives........................................................................71 3.4.2.4. Ingestive Verbs................................................................76 3.4.2.5. Dative Verbs....................................................................77 3.4.2.6. Conjunct Verbs................................................................78 3.4.2.7. Compound Verbs.............................................................79 3.4.2.8. Modal Verbs....................................................................81 3.4.3. Tense.....................................................................................82 3.4.3.1. Present Tense...................................................................83 3.4.3.2. Past Tense........................................................................85 3.4.3.2.1. Indefinite and Remote Past.........................................93 3.4.3.3. Future Tense..................................................................100 3.4.4. Aspect.................................................................................104 3.4.4.1. Perfective Aspect...........................................................104 3.4.4.2. Imperfective Aspect.......................................................106 3.4.5. Mood...................................................................................108 3.4.5.1. Conditional....................................................................108 3.4.6. Non-finite Verb Forms.......................................................109 3.4.6.1. Infinitive........................................................................109 3.4.6.2. Participles......................................................................110 3.4.6.2.1. Present Participle......................................................110 3.4.6.2.2. Perfect Participle.......................................................111 3.4.6.2.3. Conjunctive Participle..............................................111 3.4.7. Agreement..........................................................................112 3.5. Adverbs....................................................................................117 3.5.1. Expressions for Time..........................................................119 3.5.1.1. General Time Expressions.............................................119 3.5.1.2. Time of Day...................................................................120 3.5.1.3. Period of Day.................................................................122 3.5.1.4. Days of the Week..........................................................122 3.5.1.5. Months of the Year........................................................123 3.5.1.6. Year...............................................................................124 3.5.1.7. Seasons..........................................................................125 3.5.2. Frequentative......................................................................125 4. Syntax 4.1. Typology..................................................................................127 4.1.1. Word Order.........................................................................127 4.2. Phrase Types............................................................................128 4.2.1. Noun Phrases......................................................................128 4.2.2. Adjective / Adjectival Phrases............................................129 4.2.3. Adverbial Phrases...............................................................130 4.2.4. Postpositional Phrases........................................................131 4.3. Sentence Types........................................................................132 4.3.1. Simple Sentences................................................................132 4.3.1.1. Copular Sentences.........................................................132 4.3.1.2. Indicative Sentences......................................................136 4.3.1.3. Imperative Sentences.....................................................142 4.3.1.4. Interrogative Sentences..................................................144 4.3.1.5. Minor Sentences............................................................148 4.3.2. Subordinate Clauses...........................................................149 4.3.2.1. Finite Subordinate Clauses............................................149 4.3.2.2. Non-finite Subordinate Clauses.....................................152 4.3.3. Relative Clauses.................................................................154 4.3.3.1. Finite Restrictive Relative Clauses................................154 4.3.3.2. Appositive Relative Clauses..........................................156 4.3.3.3. Nonfinite Relative Clauses............................................156 4.3.3.4. Headless Relative Clauses.............................................157 4.3.4. Adverbial Clauses...............................................................158 4.3.4.1. Time Adverbial Clauses................................................158 4.3.4.2. Manner Adverbial Clauses.............................................160 4.3.4.3. Purpose Adverbial Clauses............................................161 4.3.4.4. Adverbial Clauses of Cause / Result..............................162 4.3.4.5. Adverbial Clauses of Condition and Concession...........163 4.3.5. Comparison.........................................................................164 4.3.5.1. Phrasal Comparison.......................................................164 4.3.5.2. Sentential Comparison...................................................165 4.3.6. Superlatives........................................................................166 4.3.7. Equatives............................................................................166 4.3.7.1. Phrasal Equatives...........................................................166 4.3.7.2. Correlative Equatives.....................................................167 4.3.8. Coordination.......................................................................167 4.3.8.1. t ‘and’ coordination......................................................167 (cid:19)(cid:19) 4.3.8.2. magar ‘but’ coordination..............................................170 4.3.8.3. ya: ‘or’ coordination......................................................171 4.3.8.4. ‘Either ... or’ coordination.............................................171 4.4. Other Syntactic Constructions.................................................172 4.4.1. Passivization.......................................................................172 4.4.1.1. Regular / Personal Passive.............................................172 4.4.1.2. Capability Passive..........................................................173 4.4.2. Negation.............................................................................174 4.5. Pronominals.............................................................................176 4.5.1. Reflexives...........................................................................176 4.5.1.1. Simple Reflexive pa:n...................................................176 4.5.1.2. Possessive Reflexives....................................................178 4.5.1.3. Reflexives with null / zero antecedents.........................180 4.5.1.4. Emphatic Reflexives......................................................181 4.5.2. Reciprocals.........................................................................181 4.5.3. Personal Pronouns..............................................................182 4.5.4. Null Pronouns.....................................................................185 4.5.5. Logophoric Pronouns.........................................................186 5. Lexicon 5.1. Animals, birds and insects.......................................................189 5.2. Flowers, fruits and vegetables.................................................190 5.3. Jewels, metals and minerals.....................................................191 5.4. Miscellaneous items................................................................191 5.5. Body parts................................................................................192 5.6. Occupations.............................................................................193 5.7. Kinship terms...........................................................................194 5.7.1. Kinship by blood................................................................194 5.7.2. Kinship by marriage...........................................................195 5.7.3. Kinship by affiliation..........................................................195 5.8. Adjectives................................................................................195 5.9. Verbs.......................................................................................197 5.10. Adverbs..................................................................................200 5.11. Conjunctions..........................................................................201 5.12. Pronouns................................................................................201 Preface Modern Kashmiri Grammar aims at providing basic yet extensive information on various aspects of Kashmiri phonology, morphology, and syntax along with its unique features and historical background. It is pedagogically oriented. The need for such a grammar is imminent at present. First and foremost it will fulfill the need of a large number of Kashmiris that have taken refuge in different parts of India and abroad as a result of continued disturbance in the Kashmir valley in the last fifteen years. They are fast losing contact with their mother tongue in the absence of its use in various domains of day-to-day life. They are looking for suitable language learning materials, including pedagogically oriented grammars, for maintaining the language amongst their children. Note that some of the existing grammars mentioned in the introduction are either too old, too sketchy, or too detailed and scholarly and do not fulfill the need of the second language learners or those native speakers who want to maintain the language in an alien atmosphere. For example, Grierson’s grammar based on Ishwar Kaula (1890) is almost outdated. Kachru’s (1969) grammar is rather sketchy and is available only in mimeographed form. Similarly, the recent Kashmiri grammar by Wali and Koul (1997) is too detailed and scholarly. Moreover, it is based on a prescribed Lingua format required by the editors. It has no pedagogical value as such. This grammar will be of value to linguists and general readers also. There is an increased interest among linguists and general readers due to certain special characteristics of Kashmiri, such as its place in the Indo-Aryan family, its unique verb second word order, and many other grammatical peculiarities. Our grammar will be helpful in satisfying their interest to a certain extent. In Modern Kashmiri Grammar we have utilized simple terminology, and provided suitable description with tables for grammatical categories, phrases, and sentence types. The Introduction gives a survey of the dialectal variations in the language, history of literature and grammar, and more crucially, the status of Kashmiri in the home state itself. i The Phonology section describes segmental phonemes, suprasegmentals, and morphophonology. The Morphology provides a description of the nominal and pronominal system, their inflection, gender, number, case, and special agreement features including pronominal clitics. Special attention is paid to the intricate conjugation of verbs. The Syntax describes the structure of phrases, sentence types, complex and compound constructions, special word order variations, and other intricate syntactic features. The Lexicon presents a list of classified vocabulary which is useful for students and teachers of Kashmiri as well as general readers. This grammar emphasizes special features of Kashmiri that sets it apart from other Indo-Aryan languages. In short, it will fulfill the need of the basic language learner as well as provide useful information for the linguist and general reader. We would like to take this opportunity to thank Mr. Thomas Creamer, Director, Language Research Center (a division of McNeil Technologies) for motivating us to write this grammar and for deciding to publish it. Omkar N. Koul Kashi Wali Abbreviations 1st /1 /I first person msg masculine singular 2nd /2/II second person neg negative 3rd /3/III third person nom nominative abl ablative case pass passive adv adverb pol polite asp aspiration poss possessive caus causative postp postposition cond conditional prox proximate cor correlative pl plural cp conjunctive pr present participle participle ps pronominal suffix dat dative pst.ptc past participle emp emphatic marker ptc participle erg ergative Q question particle fpl feminine plural R.I remote I fsg feminine singular R.II remote II hon honorific refl reflexive imp imperative rel relative impf imperfective RP remote past indef indefinite sg singular inf infinitive vd voiced inter interrogative vl voiceless IP indefinite past voc vocative loc locative mpl masculine plural iii References Andrabi, S.M.I.1983. Reference and Coreference in Kashmiri. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Poona. Bashir, Elena 1987. Agreement in Kashmiri Infinitive Complements. In Select Papers from SALA-7, eds. Elena Bashir et.al., 13-30. Bloomington: IULC. Bhat, Rookkrishen. 1987. A Descriptive Study of Kashmiri. Delhi: Amar Prakashan. Bhatia, Tej K. 1995. Negation in South Asian Languages. Patiala: Indian Institute of Language Studies. Bhatt, Rakesh M. 1999. Verb movement and the Syntax of Kashmiri. Dordrecht: Kluwar Academic Press. Comrie, Bernard. 1976a. Aspect: An Introduction to the Study of Verbal Aspect and Related Problems.Cambridge University Press. —. 1976b. The Syntax of Causative Constructions: Cross Language Similarities and Divergences. In Syntax and Semantics, 6., ed. M. Shibtani, 261-312. New York: Academic Press. (cid:3) —. 1985. Tense. Cambridge University Press. Del Bon, Estella. 2002. Personal Inflexions and Order of Clitics in Kashmiri. In Topics in Kashmiri Linguistics, eds. Omkar N. Koul and Kashi Wali, 129-142. New Delhi: Creative. Dhar, Nazir A. 1984. A Sociolinguistic Study of Kamraz Dialect of Kashmiri. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Poona. Fussman, Gerard. 1972. Atlas Linguistique Les Parlers Dardes e Kafirs. Paris: Ecole Francais ‘ExtremeOrient’. Grierson, G.A. 1899. On Kashmiri Verb. Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal 68.1:1-92. —. 1906. The Pisacha languages of North Western India. London: Royal Asiatic Society. Reprinted Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal 1969. —. 1911. A Standard Manual of the Kashmiri Language 2 V. Oxford. Reprinted Rohtak: Light and Life Publishers, 1973. —. 1919. The Linguistic Survey of India Vol.VIII Part II. Calcutta: Royal Asiatic Society, Reprint Delhi: Motilal Banarasidas,