MODERN CONSTRUCTION ROOFS ANDREW WATTS 1 2 3 INTRODUCTION 4 METAL 32 GLASS 64 CONCRETE 108 Modern Construction (1) Metal standing seam 34 (1) Greenhouse glazing and (1) Concealed membrane 110 Series 4 Site-based method Capped systems 66 Materials Aims of this book 5 Prefabricated methods Greenhouse glazing Structural joints Sealed and ventilated roofs Modern roof glazing Parapet upstands Introduction 6 Roof openings Capped systems Balustrades and plinths Ridges and valleys Rainwater outlets (1) An overview of Eaves and parapets (2) Silicone-sealed glazing Penetrations for pipes and ducts roof systems 8 and Rooflights 72 Metals (2) Profiled metal sheet 40 Silicone-sealed systems (2) Exposed membrane 116 Glass Profiled metal decks Junctions Polymer-based membranes Concrete as substrates Use of capped profiles PVC membranes Timber Profiled metal roof sheeting Rooflights FPO (TPO) membranes Plastics Sealed and ventilated methods Mechanically fixed method Fabrics Twin skin construction (3) Bolt fixed glazing 78 Bonded fixing method Ridges Generic structural Parapets and upstands (2) Working with Openings support methods Ballasted roofs manufacturers,fabricators Eaves and parapets Supporting brackets and installers 16 Ridges and valleys Bolt fixings (3) Planted 122 Arrangement of bolt fixings Planted roof components (3) Performance testing (3) Composite panels 46 Glazed units Soil depth of roofs 18 Single wall composite panels Overflows Air infiltration test Twin wall panels (4) Bolt fixed glazing :Pitched Roof junctions Water penetration tests Ridges roofs and rooflights 84 Rainwater outlets Wind resistance tests Verges Base of glazed roof Balcony planters Impact resistance test Eaves External and internal folds Dismantling of sample Parapets and valley gutters Small glazed rooflights Larger rooflights (4) Roof-mounted (4) Rainscreens 52 maintenance systems: Panel arrangement (5) Bolt fixed glazing: Davits and monorails 20 Parapets Twin wall roofs 90 Trolley systems 26 Monopitch ridges and verges Davit systems Roof geometry (6) Bonded glass rooflights 96 Monorails Roof soffits Generic conical rooflight Trolley systems Generic rectangular rooflight (5) Metal canopies 58 Generic monopitch rooflight Bolt fixed panels Glass roof decks Fixed metal louvre canopies Electrically operated louvres (7) Glazed canopies 102 System assembly Four edge restrained canopy Bonded glass canopies CONTENTS 4 5 6 TIMBER 128 PLASTIC 160 FABRIC 174 REFERENCES 194 (1) Flat roof :Mastic (1) GRP rooflights 162 (1) ETFE cushions 176 Photo references 194 asphalt coverings 130 Eaves and upstands Cushions Authorship 195 Warm and cold roofs Verges Air supply Bibliography 196 The material Abutments The material Index 198 Warm roof build-up Sliding roof panels Fabrication Solar protection Durability Upstands (2) GRP panels and shells 168 Performance in fire Eaves and verges Smaller panels and shells Penetrations Larger panels and shells (2) Single membrane : Gutters and rainwater outlets Cone-shaped roof 182 Fabric roof principles (2) Flat roof.Bitumen-based Fabric types sheet membranes 136 Comparison of types The material Thermal insulation Roof build-up Acoustics Solar protection Durability Fixing methods Performance in fire Parapet upstands Condensation Junction with tiled roof Eaves and verges (3) Single membrane : Barrel-shaped roof 188 (3) Pitched roof :Tiles 142 Membrane roof fabrication Plain tiles Membrane roof edges Interlocking tiles Suspension points Ventilation Membrane folds Eaves Ridges Verges Hips and valleys Abutments (4) Pitched roof :Slates 148 Roof folds Vents Monopitch ridges Dormer windows Abutments (5) Pitched roof :Metal 154 Standing seam cold roofs Eaves and valley gutters Ridges and abutments Penetrations Metal tiled roofs MODERN The series is based around the Modern Construction Handbook.Themes of each chapter CONSTRUCTION SERIES from the MCH are developed to provide detailed design guides for facades,roofs,materials and fittings.An additional volume of details brings together drawn technical information.Books in the series discuss component design,building assembly,craftsmanship,as well as structural and envi- ronmental issues from the MCH. AIMS OF THIS BOOK Modern Construction Roofs is a textbook for students and young practitioners of architec- ture,as well as students of structural and environmental engineering who wish to broaden their study beyond the information provided in the Roofs chapter of the Modern Construction Handbook.It shows the principles of the main roof types used today and illustrates this through typical generic details,together with a built example,that can inform a design at a more detailed stage. The six chapters examine roofs from the standpoint of the primary material used in their construction,from metal to glass,concrete,timber,plastics and fabrics.Each set of three double page spreads explains a specific form of construction which is accompanied by drawn and annotated details.Throughout the book,built examples by high profile designers are used to illustrate specific principles.As is the case in the Modern Construction Handbook the tech- niques described can be applied internationally. INTRODUCTORY ESSAYS These essays discuss two issues related to roof design:design development,and provisions for maintenance access.There is an increasing tendency to conceal roof gutters and pipes and to integrate them into the depth of the roof construction.Access systems for cleaning and maintaining roofs,as well as equipment mounted on a roof for cleaning facades beneath,has developed considerably over the last 10 years.In addition to cradles hung from the roof on fixed jibs or moving on tracks,the use of abseiling has increased in popularity since the 1980's. The higher levels of safety used in abseiling make it easier to clean roofs and facades of complex geometry without the need for highly visible ladders and cradles.This has considerable advan- tages for glazed roofs,inclined metal roofs and fabric structures. METALS CHAPTER The Metals Chapter discusses the use of metal sheet in roofs both as a substrate and as a watertight covering.When used as a substrate,in the form of profiled metal decking or com- posite panels,a waterproof membrane can be formed in different materials.Used as a covering material,metal sheet can be used in standing seams,profiled sheet and rainscreens.Solar shad- ing devices formed from metal are also discussed. GLASS CHAPTER The Glass Chapter sets out the use of the material as both rooflights and as large glass roofs. Stick framed rooflights and glazing systems are related to those used for walls,but are usually fixed with pressure plates on the two sides parallel with the line of slope.Bolt fixed glazing sys- tems for rooflights and roofs follow principles used in wall construction.Bonded glass decks and rooflights are a development of glass block details,which are also discussed.Finally in this MCR_ 4 INTRODUCTION chapter,glazed canopies are discussed,focusing on those that use point fixings with a minimum of support structure. CONCRETE CHAPTER Roof decks constructed in concrete are covered with a variety of waterproof membranes and finishes.When the membrane is applied directly to the concrete,thermal insulation and fin- ishes,such s planting,paving slabs or timber decking,are applied.Construction can also be fin- ished with another roofing system,such as metal standing seams,or rainscreens in other materi- als.All these types are discussed in this chapter. TIMBER CHAPTER Timber roofs are a traditional form of construction that use mainly tiles,slates and shingles in housing projects.In recent years,the increased use of metal sheet on timber roofs has led to an increase in more complex geometries that do not need to follow the principles of those tra- ditional lapped roofing materials.Flat timber roofs,thin planting and metal sheet,in addition to the more traditional single membrane finishes,are set out here. PLASTICS CHAPTER GRP panels have the advantage of providing well insulated translucent panels that are more economic than those in glass.They are much lighter than glass,allowing more visually delicate support structures to be used for these panels.Glass reinforced polyester (GRP) can produce opaque roof forms that are free of joints,forming continuous roof structures such as shells and domes that form a monolithic,lightweight material with a watertight finish on its outside face. All these types are explained in this chapter. FABRIC CHAPTER The Fabric Chapter discusses tensile roof structures,air supported types and smaller scale canopies.PTFE membranes can be stretched over supporting structures,typically stainless steel cables with tubular steel supports.PTFE sheet is also used to form inflated 'air pillows' that are supported on an aluminium frame.Their advantage of high thermal insulation and lightness in weight is making them an increasingly preferred option for roof structures. QUALIFYING COMMENTS The building techniques discussed and the built examples shown are designed to last for an extended period with a relatively high performance.However,buildings for exhibitions and for temporary use are included since the techniques used have proven to be reliable in both short term and long term.In addressing an international readership,references to national legislation, building regulations,codes of practice and national standards have specifically not been included. This book explains the principles of accepted building techniques currently in use.Building codes throughout the world are undergoing increased harmonisation because of increased eco- nomic and intellectual globalisation.Building components and assemblies from many different countries are often used in a single building.Since building codes are written to protect users of buildings by providing for their health and safety,good construction practice will always uphold these codes as well as assist their advancement.The components,assemblies and details shown in this book describe many of the building techniques used by the building industry today,but this book does not necessarily endorse or justify their use since techniques in building are in a continual state of change and development.Some of the examples shown are highly developed applications of the techniques described. MCR_5 INTRODUCTION (1)Anoverviewofroofsystems Metals Glass Concrete Timber Plastics Fabrics (2)Workingwithmanufacturers,fabricators andinstallers (3)Performancetestingofroofs Air infiltration test Water penetration tests Wind resistance tests Impact resistance test Dismantling of sample (4) Roof-mountedmaintenancesystems: Davitsandmonorails Trolleysystems Davit systems Monorails Trolley systems MMCCRR__ 77 An overview of roof systems Light Wing,New York City.Architect:Tom Wiscombe / Emergent. An essential change in recent years that has become submerged in a thin film of water increased flexibility) led to more adventur- affected roofing systems in all materials is the running across it,so that the principles of a ous roof forms without affecting the its increased visibility of roof designs,with some second line of defence used in facade design waterproofing performance.The gradual forming a continuity with the façade have a limited application on roofs.Some move away from the traditional roof with a beneath.Where roofs were once considered designs take the idea of the roof as a com- central ridge led to the use of brighter to be either of traditional appearance,as pletely watertight,single layer membrane colours in paint-based finishes which are with tiled and slated pitched roofs,or else and use it to cover the complete external associated with consumer products,particu- completely concealed as flat roofs,they are envelope.This is very much a principle of the larly cars,rather than the use of traditional now increasingly considered to be a part of roof taken down over the walls,rather than dark colours that imitated traditional materi- a completely visible envelope design which is facade design taken over the roof.Both als such as tiles and slates,or galvanised coat- as visually important as the external walls, approaches are taken in sculptural forms ing on steel sheet.By the 1980's some build- both in their appearance and their technical where wall and roof are combined in a sin- ings even imitated the forms of train car- performance.The increased performance of gle design. riages,with polished stainless steel roof roofing systems in all materials has led to Increasingly,roof systems are influencing cladding and profiled metal that followed greater experimentation,both technically facade designs,and facade techniques are horizontal lines rather than the traditional and visually. being incorporated into roof design.Bolt orientation of the profiled sheet which In some recent projects,walls and roofs fixed glazing,rainscreens,silicone bonding allows rainwater to drain easily down the are taking on a single structural form,with and unitised panels are being absorbed into slope.By the early 1990's profiled metal the same construction methods,materials roof design,while ETFE cushions,polymer roofs were using standing seam joints,which and detailing used on both walls and roof. membranes and fabric structures are finding combined the long span capability of profiled The increased technical performance and their way into facade design. sheet with the visually refined and very long term reliability of roofing materials of all water tight standing seams which are types has led to a much more ambitious Metals 'zipped' together by machine on site.Since design approach.However,an essential dif- A development in metal roofs over the the introduction of 'zip up' sheeting,the dif- ference between facades and roofs as that past 10 years has been to improve the visual ference between profiled metal and standing facades have rainwater running across their appearance of all metal roof systems.By the seam systems has become slightly blurred as surface,but roofs can be submerged in late 1970's,profiled metal sheet roofs had a result of these mixed methods of assembly. water during rain.A roof has to be com- added curved eaves and pressed metal cor- This new 'hybrid' system has a lining panel pletely sealed in areas where water can col- ners to provide concealed gutters that gave system which can be fixed from metal lect,such as parapet gutters,with the the roof a strong 'linear' texture that formed sheets,with some being hung down from assumption that rainwater will be expected an important part of the design of industrial roof level without any scaffolding or access to remain on the roof if the rainwater out- buildings.The increased reliability of jointing platforms required at all.This makes large lets become blocked.Even pitched roofs together with the increased use of alumini- roof spans,particularly at high level,such as assume that the surface of the roof will um sheet instead of steel sheet (with its in covered sports halls,much easier to con- MCR_ 8 The innovative design and construction of this roof canopy was a result not only of digital technology, but of an equally innovative use of teamwork, where individuals and groups are brought together for a specific project.The working method was as important to the design team as the aspects of design and fabrication. struct since scaffolding is not required. to metal roofing systems.They do not use to achieve the same visual effect.Although Composite roof panel systems have been the outer seam as a first line of defence such panels are a kind of 'virtual' metal roof in development since the 1980's,with panels against rainwater penetration but rather as a rather than being formed entirely from that provide an internal ceiling finish and protection to the membrane beneath metal,they can deal with varying methods of outer roof covering in single panels which are against the effects of the sun and to avoid translucency and transparency in a single semi-interlocked,with either a lapped metal maintenance staff walking on the exposed metal layer that can reveal its depth both joint between panels or a metal capping that membrane.This is becoming a visually more from inside the building and from outside.A clips over a standing seam-type joint.Com- appealing alternative to smooth pebbles, future development of metal rainscreen pan- posite panels have still not reached the level which also have the disadvantage of collect- els might be to use them in conjunction with of technical ambition of their counterparts in ing dirt and dust from which vegetation can a translucent roof such as GRP panels filled facades.The joint between panels would be grow.Metal rainscreen panels are required with translucent thermal insulation,with var- ideal to serve as drainage gutters to be set to be sufficiently rigid and resistant to impact ied amounts of daylight,allowing GRP panels or even as a second line of defence to an damage.Composite sheets with a plastic to be in different colours,to which they outer seal,as used in curtain walling,with a core and thin metal outer facings are popu- would otherwise be susceptible to colour drained and ventilated slot in the joint where lar in this regard since they achieve high lev- fading without the perforated or slotted water would be released at the base of the els of flatness and are flexible enough to metal panels.They could also be used with roof.Some attempts have been made in this withstand foot traffic,usually when alumini- polycarbonate sheets or plastic-based glazing direction,but much development is needed um sections are silicone-bonded on the in acrylic,for example,where the punched to move this metal system away from an imi- underside of panels. metal panels allow a diffused light but where tation of profiled sheet metal into a complete A new development is the use of metal the aging effects on the materials would be system in its own right.A modest but useful rainscreens in a mixture of opaque and per- much less apparent and may even contribute method of using composite panels is as an forated or slotted,panels,which may also be to enhancing the coloured effects.This alter- insulated structural deck to a separate water- used in soffit (upside down) conditions.Here native to a glass roof would allow such roof proof membrane set on top.While lacking the panels are more than a semi-decorative build-ups to be non-linear,even curving in visibility of the panels,it is very adaptable and covering to an economic roof covering, two directions,in the manner of tensioned economic,with thermal insulation not only forming part of the expression of the build- single layer fabric membrane roofs. filling the voids between peaks and troughs ing envelope in forming a continuity Metal canopies are undergoing major of the metal sheet on its underside but also between different parts of a roofscape,rang- developments.Since they can also be used providing structural stability.These composite ing from covering air extract terminals, as solar shading,they often can be consid- roof panels have also been used in facades, rooflights and gutters to forming a continu- ered to be small roof structures in their own where long span cladding panels are required ous smooth continuation of the facade right,being able to exploit folding geome- which are difficult to obtain specifically from below.Metal rainscreen panels can also tries,as experiments for future building proprietary cladding systems. accommodate complex geometries without envelopes.The use of CNC-based cutting Rainscreen panels are a recent addition having to make individual composite panels machines,as well as the increasingly eco- MCR_ 9 An overview of roof systems Bruges Pavilion.Belgium.Architect:Toyo Ito & Associates. The design of the structural composite panels,or 'sandwich' panels,underwent much development in the workshop.The extensive use of proto- typing allowed an ambitious design to be developed for a rela- tively small building. nomic stamping tools to make individual pat- Glass have been in use for the past 25 years,the terns in punched sheets,makes specially pat- Glass systems have developed consider- issue of the water tightness of the horizontal terned and cut panels for each project easier ably over the past 25 years in order to joint has been undergoing continual devel- to obtain in different materials. address the issue of improved weather tight- opment.Glazing bars have been used to A change over the past 10 years which ness.So-called 'patent' glazing originally support glass down the slope of the roof has influenced all types of metal construction referred to patented systems for greenhouse where they do not impede the passage of is the increased quality of the finishes.The glazing with metal glazing bars and clips that rainwater.Horizontal joints have been sup- quality of powder coating has improved secured the glass quickly and reliably.The ported with stepped joints where water enormously,with greater durability and term patent glazing is still used but these are running off the top of the upper glass down colour-fastness,so that it competes strongly now usually thermally broken and hold dou- onto a lower glass.The glass is traditionally with the more expensive PVDF finishes.Con- ble glazed units.The outer seals are able to secured with clips and is sealed with a pro- sequently,the main constraint in the design of remain watertight at much higher wind pres- prietary sealant.This joint is difficult to seal metal roofs in any of these systems is that sures from wind driven rain,and are drained reliably in order to achieve water tightness metal sheet is produced in widths of around and internally ventilated in the manner of for higher wind pressures,and is difficult to 1200mm or 1500mm,but is usually available facade systems.Rainwater penetration of adapt to a drained and ventilated system. in long lengths where coil material is used, joints in glazing systems has long been asso- This issue has been resolved over the past that is,where the metal is rolled into a long ciated with a pressure difference between 20 years with the development of silicone coil in the factory.Most metal panels in the external air and the air pressure inside bonded glazing that was originally used in facades are made from coil material,where a the glazing system if it is completely sealed.A glazed curtain walls.In the new method,a similar constraint applies in material width. lower pressure inside the system than out- metal channel is set along the top and bot- Thicker plate,at 4mm thickness and above,is side drew water in through joints which tom of double glazed units,with the units made in flat sheet form,at around 1000mm resulted in leaks through both glazed roofs being set flush with one another along the x 2000mm in size,with larger sheets being and glazed walls.This issue has long been horizontal joints.The units are then secured more difficult to obtain easily in large quanti- resolved by draining away any water that with metal clips within the depth of the joint ty.Working with the width of the coil in passes through the outer seals in drainage to provide a mechanical restraint.The hori- forming joints,and allowing for the folding or grooves set adjacent to the edges of the zontal joint between units is then sealed turning of the material at the joints,is the double glazed units,beneath the pressure with silicone.The aluminium frame onto main constraint,but the material can be plate that holds the glass in place.Water is which the glass is fixed has ventilated curved and folded economically to achieve drained at the bottom,where air is allowed drainage channels to take away any water almost any form required,in a durable mater- to enter into the area in which the drainage that passes through the outer silicone seal. ial,with finishes that will retain their crisp chamber is located to ensure there is no With the development of silicone bonding appearance up to around 25 years. pressure difference between inside and out- techniques in recent years,the double glazed side. unit can also be bonded to aluminium pro- Although drained and ventilated systems files which are mechanically fixed with MCR_ 10 Mercedes Benz Design Center,Stuttgart,Germany.Architect:Renzo Piano Building Workshop Like a twin wall facade,this roof design incorporates both glazing and solar shading.The use of internal shading allows daylight to be directed within the space,allowing day- light to be reflected off the internal shad- ing to adjust the quality of daylight. screws to a supporting frame.The joint glass forming a continuous rooflight with the held in a perimeter frame that supports the between the glass units is then sealed with supporting structure and solar shading, cables in the form of a ring beam.Where the silicone in the same way as the previous where required,set outside the glass.Where rooflight is surrounded by an opaque roof, example.An alternative approach has been a rooflight is seen mainly from outside,and where it forms an opening in a concrete to introduce horizontal glazing bars with the structure is set on the inside,the roof deck for example,the ring beam is not pressure plates that are shaped to allow as rooflight is seen in terms of its volume, visible,but where it forms a complete roof, much water to drain down the roof as possi- almost as a solid block of glass without visi- the resulting perimeter structure can be ble,and accepts that the same water will be ble structure.The preference for the uninter- visually dominant,so this approach is highly trapped behind the upper edge of the pres- rupted plane of glass with a certain reflectivi- dependent upon the visual elegance of the sure plate.This small amount of rainwater ty is developing alongside the preference for perimeter structure when this structure is will evaporate,and any small amounts of transparency in rooflight design.Where bolt exposed.Bolt fixed rooflights are moving water that find their way through the outer fixed glazing for rooflights was preferred away gradually from a dependence on the seal will be drained away within the system. originally for its greater transparency as a X-shaped cast bracket,which is very charac- Both the recessed fixing method with a sili- result of its frameless,point fixed,design,this teristic of the technique used to date, cone seal,and the modified pressure plate method is now being used more for the towards more flat plates and welded brack- system have been proved very reliable in uninterrupted planes and modelled forms of ets,which are both more economic and their performance. glass it creates.This is seen in the technical ensure more visual emphasis on planes or Bolt fixed glazing for rooflights has been development of the systems,where the bolt forms created by the glass than on the fixing applied more slowly to new roof designs fixing supports only one side of the double system of brackets and bolts. than its use in facades.The technical success glazed unit,with the outer sheet of the dou- Bonded glass rooflights are a recent of bolt fixed glazing is in part dependent on ble glazed unit having no bolt fixing penetra- development in glazed roofs,where double high levels of workmanship on site to form tion,and consequently no visible fixings on glazed units are bonded directly onto a light- the joints between glazed units.This led to the external face of the glass.This takes bolt weight metal frame that has no visible fixings some difficulties in the early application of fixed glazing a step further towards a glazing on its external face.But where bolt fixed bolt fixed glazing in roofs but this has been system with no visible fixings. glazing can conceal the fixing bolt within the subsequently solved.An advantage of bolt The use of bolt fixed glazing to provide double glazed unit on one side,structural sil- fixed glazing over framed systems is their greater visual transparency has led to an icone glazing has no visible structure at all, ability to be fixed from either inside or out- increased use of cable net supporting struc- with supporting glazing bars being concealed side.Where framing glazing has the support- tures.Cable nets for bolt fixed glazing com- within the width of the joint behind the ing extrusions on the inside,even if the glaz- prise cables,usually in a rectilinear grid of external seal.This has led to greater freedom ing bar extends to the outside of the roof, stainless steel cables where bolt fixings are in the forms used for rooflights in this tech- the grid of metal framing remains visible. set at the intersection points of the cables. nique,where the position of the glazing bars, With bolt fixed glazing the rooflight is seen The effect of these structures is like a tennis and how they intersect,does not have to be increasingly as an uninterrupted plane of racquet,where visually lightweight cables are considered in rooflight design.The conical- MCR_ 11