Models for Intercultural Collaboration and Negotiation Advances in Group Decision and Negotiation Volume6 SeriesEditor MelvinF.Shakun,NewYorkUniversity,U.S.A. EditorialBoard TungBui,UniversityofHawaii,U.S.A. GuyOlivierFaure,UniversityofParisV,Sorbonne,France GregoryKersten,UniversityofOttawaandConcordiaUniversity,Canada D.MarcKilgour,WilfridLaurierUniversity,Canada PeymanFaratin,MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology,U.S.A. Thebookseries,AdvancesinGroupDecisionandNegotiation—asanextensionof thejournal,GroupDecisionandNegotiation—ismotivatedbyunifyingapproaches to group decision and negotiation processes. These processes are purposeful, adaptive and complex – cybernetic and self-organizing – and involve relation and coordination in multiplayer, multicriteria, ill-structured, evolving dynamic problems in which players (agents) both cooperate and conflict. These processes arepurposefulcomplexadaptivesystems. Group decision and negotiation involves the whole process or flow of activities relevant to group decision and negotiation – such as, communication and informationsharing, problemdefinition (representation)and evolution,alternative generation,socialemotionalinteraction,coordination,leadership,andtheresulting actionchoice. Areas of application include intraorganizational coordination (as in local/global strategy, operations management and integrated design, production, finance, marketing and distribution – e.g., as for new products), computer supported collaborativework, labor-managementnegotiation,interorganizationalnegotiation (business, government and nonprofits), electronic negotiation and commerce, mobiletechnology,cultureandnegotiation,interculturalandinternationalrelations andnegotiation,globalization,terrorism,environmentalnegotiation,etc. Forfurthervolumes: http://www.springer.com/series/5587 Katia Sycara (cid:129) Michele Gelfand (cid:129) Allison Abbe Editors Models for Intercultural Collaboration and Negotiation 123 Editors KatiaSycara MicheleGelfand SchoolofComputerScience DepartmentofPsychology CarnegieMellonUniversity UniversityofMaryland PittsburghPennsylvania CollegeParkMaryland USA USA AllisonAbbe U.S.ArmyResearchInstitute fortheBehavioral&SocialSciences ArlingtonVirginia USA ISSN1871-935X ISBN978-94-007-5573-4 ISBN978-94-007-5574-1(eBook) DOI10.1007/978-94-007-5574-1 SpringerDordrechtHeidelbergNewYorkLondon LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2013930171 ©SpringerScience+BusinessMediaDordrecht2013 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsarereservedbythePublisher,whetherthewholeorpartof thematerialisconcerned,specificallytherightsoftranslation,reprinting,reuseofillustrations,recitation, broadcasting,reproductiononmicrofilmsorinanyotherphysicalway,andtransmissionorinformation storageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilarordissimilarmethodology nowknownorhereafterdeveloped.Exemptedfromthislegalreservationarebriefexcerptsinconnection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright Law of the Publisher’slocation,initscurrentversion,andpermissionforusemustalwaysbeobtainedfromSpringer. PermissionsforusemaybeobtainedthroughRightsLinkattheCopyrightClearanceCenter.Violations areliabletoprosecutionundertherespectiveCopyrightLaw. Theuseofgeneraldescriptivenames,registerednames,trademarks,servicemarks,etc.inthispublication doesnotimply,evenintheabsenceofaspecificstatement,thatsuchnamesareexemptfromtherelevant protectivelawsandregulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse. While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication,neithertheauthorsnortheeditorsnorthepublishercanacceptanylegalresponsibilityfor anyerrorsoromissionsthatmaybemade.Thepublishermakesnowarranty,expressorimplied,with respecttothematerialcontainedherein. Printedonacid-freepaper SpringerispartofSpringerScience+BusinessMedia(www.springer.com) Foreword Over the last five decades the corporate world has increasingly seen the value in expanding their reach across international borders. Organizationshave worked to enter new markets overseas, gain access to cheaper labor pools, and take advantage of potential synergies and new ideas through merging with similar organizations in other nations. In doing so, they have encountered, and worked to solve, the variety of problems that stem from interacting and working across national and cultural boundaries. In the last decade, the military community has similarly encountered and begun work to solve many of these problems. In 2008 the Department of the Army requested that a consortium of universities led by Dr.MicheleGelfandattheUniversityofMarylandandDr.KatiaSycaraatCarnegie MellonUniversity,undertakealineofresearchexaminingcriticalsocialprocesses across cultural boundaries. This research has focused on understanding collab- oration and negotiation in cross-cultural contexts. The consortium is composed of two research teams led respectively by Drs. Gelfand and Sycara, with each team approachingthese researchproblemsfromtwo complementaryperspectives. One team has begun from a psychological perspective building grounded theory to explain observed behavior in negotiation and collaboration activity. A separate teamhasworkedfromacomputationalmodelingperspectivetomodeltheobserved computationally and thus inform theory on negotiation and collaboration. These complementaryapproaches,combiningapsychologically-groundedapproachwith computationalmodeling,holdgreatpromiseformakingsignificantstridesforward inourunderstandingofthesecriticalsocialprocessesincross-culturalcontexts. As the reader makes their way through this volume, they will note the tension betweenthereductionismnecessaryforcomputationalmodelstocapturebehavior with some measure of accuracy and the contextualization necessary for fully understandingbehaviorintherealworld.Balancingthistensionisbothintentional in the design of the research effort and necessary to achieving the knowledge desired.Theresearchteamsrepresentedinthesechaptershaveprovidedanexcellent exampleofhowthesetwofieldscancooperatively–indeedcollaboratively–work togethertoachievemorethaneithercouldinisolation. v vi Foreword Unlikesomevolumeswhichhaveaninherentlyretrospectivetone,theintentof this book is to capture and convey the surge forward in thinking in this domain and push our collective understandingforward. The editors and authors articulate the new insights they have gained through this research enterprise and explore newchallengestheyhave uncoveredalongthe way.Thisresearcheffortis notyet complete,andthusthediscussioncontainedhereisbutausefulpausetoreflectand reportthe knowledgegainedto date.Itis also a pointofdepartureforempirically exploring the immediate questions raised. Further these ideas and questions may inspire the many post-doctoral fellows, graduate and undergraduate students to continuethislineofinquiryinthefuture. Thistypeofmultidisciplinaryeffortholdspromise,andindeedmaybenecessary, asthemostimportantscientificquestionsfacingthebehavioralsciencesmoreoften arefoundattheboundariesbetweenscientificdisciplines.Itisinthischallenging, oftenmessyenvironmentthatsomeofthemostsignificantscientificachievements ofourtimewillbemade.Assuch,theeditorsandauthors–theprincipalresearchers undertakingthis effort– are to be congratulatedfor their willingnessto undertake suchaneffortandpersistenceinhandlingthemanychallengestheyhavefacedalong theway.Multidisciplinaryresearchisnoteasy.However,whenexecutedwell,asit hasbeenhere,itcanbeextraordinarilyproductive. ChiefofBasicResearch GeraldF.Goodwin U.S.ArmyResearchInstitute Contents AFormalDefinitionofCulture................................................. 1 Aliaksandr Birukou, Enrico Blanzieri, Paolo Giorgini, andFaustoGiunchiglia TowardaContextualizedCulturalFramework .............................. 27 MaritzaR.Salazar, MarissaL.Shuffler, WendyL.Bedwell, andEduardoSalas Toward a Unified NegotiationFramework: Leveraging StrengthsinBehavioralandComputationalCommunities ................. 53 NazliTuran,TinglongDai,KatiaSycara,andLaurieWeingart AModelofCultureinTradingAgents ........................................ 67 GertJanHofstede,CatholijnM.Jonker,andTimVerwaart HowDoITrust Thee?DynamicTrust PatternsandTheir IndividualandSocialContextualDeterminants.............................. 97 C.AshleyFulmerandMicheleJ.Gelfand NegotiatingCulturalConflictsOverSacredValues.......................... 133 KateJassin, HammadSheikh, NadineObeid, NicholeArgo, andJeremyGinges StudyingTrajectoriesofConflictEscalation.................................. 145 LanBui-Wrzosinska, MicheleGelfand, AndrzejNowak, andLauraSeverance AGame-TheoreticApproachtoModelingCross-CulturalNegotiation... 157 MiroslavDud´ıkandGeoffreyJ.Gordon vii viii Contents Inter-culturalOpponent BehaviorModeling inaPOMDP basedAutomatedNegotiatingAgent........................................... 165 Praveen Paruchuri, Nilanjan Chakraborty,Geoff Gordon, KatiaSycara,JeanneBrett,andWendiAdair ModelingDynamicsofMulticulturalIntegrationandConflict............. 183 WouterE.deRaad,AndrzejNowak,andWojciechBorkowski Index............................................................................... 199 A Formal Definition of Culture AliaksandrBirukou,EnricoBlanzieri,PaoloGiorgini,andFaustoGiunchiglia Abstract Globalization makes culture no more bound to a geographical area, race or religion as was previouslyconsideredin anthropology.With the adventof Web 2.0 it becomesappropriateto speak aboutthe culture of online communities in general, without specific ties to country or nation. Multi-national companies, softwaredevelopers,scientists needto take intoaccountculturaldifferenceswhen delivering products to people. The first step in dealing with culture consists in definingandrepresentingcultureofthetargetedcommunity.AIliteratureaddressed issues of sociality, collaboration, and coordination in agent societies, but did not targettheproblemofdefiningandrepresentingcultureofacommunity. This chapter presents a formal definition of culture of a set of agents. The proposeddefinition generalizesexisting definitionsof cultureand it is operational inthesensethatitcanbeappliedforcharacterizationandcomparisonofculture(s) existing in various communities. The main focus of this chapter is on the first version of the formalism that does not introduce states. However, representing a snapshotofthecultureinacertainmomentisthefirststeptowardsamorecomplex formalismthatincludesstates(theworkonthelatterisongoingandwepresentonly preliminarydefinitionshere). Keywords Culture (cid:129) Formal definition (cid:129) Agents (cid:129) Communities (cid:129) Web 2.0 (cid:129) Traits (cid:129) Actions (cid:129) Artificialintelligence A.Birukou(cid:129)E.Blanzieri((cid:2))(cid:129)P.Giorgini(cid:129)F.Giunchiglia DISI,UniversityofTrento,viaSommarive14,Povo,Trento,TN38123,Italy e-mail:[email protected];[email protected];[email protected]; [email protected] K.Sycaraetal.(eds.),ModelsforInterculturalCollaborationandNegotiation, 1 AdvancesinGroupDecisionandNegotiation6,DOI10.1007/978-94-007-5574-1 1, ©SpringerScienceCBusinessMediaDordrecht2013 2 A.Birukouetal. 1 Introduction TheadventofWeb2.0leadtoanexplosivegrowthinthenumberofapplicationstar- getedat communities,e.g. applicationssupportingsocial navigation,collaborative editing,bookmarkingandtagging.Insuchapplications,cultureisnomoreboundto ageographicalareaorareligion,asitisusuallystudiedinanthropology.Itbecomes appropriatetospeakaboutthecultureofonlinecommunitiesandsuchcommunities ingeneralcannotbecharacterizedintermsofrace,religion,orcountry.Rephrasing Axelrod(1997),electroniccommunicationsallowsustodeveloppatternsofinter- actionthatarechosenratherthanimposedbygeography.Specificapplicationssuch as search enginesor e-bookshopsand the ways of using them become part of the cultureofpeople.Forinstance,usingNortonCommanderfilemanagerorpreparing documents in the MS DOS 6.0 operating system, nowadays would be considered unusualtothesameextentaslightingone’shousewithtorches.Moreover,insome scenarioswecanspeakaboutsocietiesofpureartificialagents,suchaswebservices or programs and their specific culture, e.g. the standards implemented or the set of functionalities used. Human traders and trading agents operating on the same markets together use the same rules and developcommon practices which can be referredto asculturethatexistsin amixedsocietycomposedofdifferenttypesof agents.Allthisshowsthatgraspingandrepresentingculturebecomesanimportant problemin computerscience. Applicationsshould be developedconsistently with thecultureofthetargetcommunityandthenotionofculturewouldprovidesupport forbuildingsuchapplications. In this chapter we provide a formal definition of culture. Our goal is not to provide a formalism or a reasoning framework per se, but, rather, to give an operationaldefinitionofculturethatcanbeusedforcharacterizinganddescribing cultureindifferentscenarios.Inparticular,weaddresstheproblemsofdevelopment of applications according to the community culture and of characterizing culture of existing communities. We present and formalize a definition of the notion of culture of a set of agents at a momentin time. We define culture as a set of traits that are shared by the set, where traits are characteristics of human societies that are potentially transmitted by non-genetic means and can be owned by an agent (modified from Mulder, Nunn, & Towner, 2006). The requirement of traits being potentiallytransmittedisneededbecausetransmissionisawayofspreadingtraits, and, consequently,culture, and withouttransmission it is hard to achieve sharing. Thesharingofsuchtraitsbythesetisrequiredfortworeasons:(1)togofromthe setof personaltraits ofan individualto thecultureof the setof agents,and(2)to filteroutcharacteristicswhichonlypertaintothesetofagentsasawhole,butnot toindividuals.Anexampleoflattertraitsisbirthrate. This chapter consolidates and slightly updates the work previously published as a technical report (Birukou, Blanzieri, Giorgini, & Giunchiglia, 2009a) and a workshoppaper(Birukou,Blanzieri, Giorgini,& Giunchiglia,2009b).We start in Sect. 2with the reviewoftheuse of conceptofculturein theliterature.Section3 presentsthefirstversionoftheformalismthatdoesnotintroducestatesanddoesnot