RReeaaddiinngg HHoorriizzoonnss:: AA JJoouurrnnaall ooff LLiitteerraaccyy aanndd LLaanngguuaaggee AArrttss Volume 31 Article 6 Issue 2 November/December 1990 12-1-1990 MMooddeelliinngg aann EExxppoossiittoorryy TTeexxtt SSttrruuccttuurree SSttrraatteeggyy iinn TThhiinnkk AAlloouuddss Christine J. Gordon University of Calgary Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/reading_horizons Part of the Education Commons RReeccoommmmeennddeedd CCiittaattiioonn Gordon, C. J. (1990). Modeling an Expository Text Structure Strategy in Think Alouds. Reading Horizons: A Journal of Literacy and Language Arts, 31 (2). Retrieved from https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/ reading_horizons/vol31/iss2/6 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Special Education and Literacy Studies at ScholarWorks at WMU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Reading Horizons: A Journal of Literacy and Language Arts by an authorized editor of ScholarWorks at WMU. For more information, please contact wmu- [email protected]. ^fcfc Modeling an Expository Text Structure Strategy in Think Alouds Christine J. Gordon Several current notions used in combination can con tribute to better teaching of comprehension of expository text. These include knowledge of text structure, strategic reading, and the think-aloud procedure. Knowledge of text structure is knowledge of the author's underlying organiza tion of the ideas presented. The think-aloud procedure is suggested as the vehicle by which to demonstrate a strate gic readers' use of text structure knowledge while reading. It's a "talk-as-you go" or "talk-as-you read" procedure. Strategies are defined as systematic plans that readers can use flexibly, adapting them to particular reading situations or contexts (Duffyand Roehler, 1987). Strategies are thus generalizable beyond any one task. A strategic reader is consciously aware of strategies (such as use of text structure knowledge, drawing infer ences, making predictions) and the reasoning involved, and applies that knowledge when and where necessary. In be coming a strategic reader, awareness of strategies often precedes control over them in the reasoning process. One method of promoting strategic reading involves the modeling of thought processes to make explicit what is 150 READING HORIZONS, 1990, volume 31, #2 invisible. Modeling involves explaining the kinds of strate gies used and the reasoning involved in the process of making sense of text. The think-aloud is an instructional procedure in which the teacher orally describes thought processes when n3ading, revealing strategies used and the reasoning processes involved, while highlighting the prob lems encountered and the "repair" strategies used to deal with these problen1s. It is the mental corollary of a physical demonstration. Of course, think-alouds are not limited to the teaching of strategic reading. Think-alouds are general instructional procedures which are used to teach a number of human ac tivities that have! cognitive components which can be brought to consciousness. Activities such as card playing, sports activities (to teach specific skill components), and more recently the writing process can be taught using think alouds as an accompaniment check to the physical demonstration. Thus, in reading, it is important that not only the physically observable aspects of reading be modeled but, using a think-aloud, invisible cognitive/metacognitive processes also be made visible (Duffy, Roehler, and Herrmann, 1988). Modeling in the think-aloud "minimizes the guesswork in learning how reading works" (p. 763) be cause it makes explicit the mental activities which undergird strategic reading. Types of expository text structures Expository tE~xt is written to inform the reader about a specific subject. Generally speaking, expository text con tains an explicit or implicit topic sentence with the main idea and the supporting ideas. These ideas are organized into text structures. Text structures are author's arrangements or organizations of ideas in text. These organizations or patterns include Ilisting of ideas, sequencing of ideas ac- READING HORIZONS, 1990, volume 31, #2 151 cording to a time order, comparing and contrasting ideas, describing characteristics of ideas, discussing causes and effects of ideas and addressing the problems certain ideas present as well as their solutions. Often the writer provides key or signal words that identify the structure of a para graph. For example, a paragraph organized into a se quence states its main idea in the topic sentence, and to support the main idea the author sets out details in a spe cific order that carries the correct meaning of the text. Key or cue words include first, second, third, etc., plus next, then, finally, last, after that, etc. If a reader knows how to use the author's structure, the reader is more likely to build a coherent model of text. The better organized the text, the more apparent will the struc ture be for the reader's use. For example, if a reader is cued by the passage that the text presents a sequence, prior experience with sequence leads the reader to antici pate and search for a time order during the reading. Alternately, if the underlying organization is a problem/so lution, then this schema may be activated by the structure and/or directional words in the text, in turn generating ex pectations that the problems will be stated and that one can anticipate and search for solutions (Meyer et aI., 1980). The strategic use of expository text structure knowledge can be modeled in a think-aloud. According to Piccolo (1987), students should have knowledge about six text structures, each of which has criti cal attributes: • Description A specific topic and its attributes are presented in such a topic. No specific key words identify a descriptive paragraph. • Enumeration In this type of paragraph, the main idea can be found in the topic sentence. A number of ideas 152 READING HlORIZONS, 1990, volume 31, #2 are listed to support the key idea. Signal words include first, second, third, next, then, last. • Sequence This kind of paragraph or selection, while stating the main idea in a topic sentence, contains supporting details which must be presented in a specific or temporal order. Signal words include first, second, then, next, final/y. • Cause/eflfect The main idea is provided in the topic sentence. The main statement gives the reason or tells the why the statement is correct and the details provide the consequences/results/outcomes. Signal words include so, so that, as a r~?sult, thus, since, because of, in order to. • Comparison/contrast The topic statement pro vides the topics to be compared or contrasted. The sup porting details address the similarities or differences or both. Key words include is like, same as, similar to, different from, unlike, compared to. • Problem/solution In the topic sentence the prob lem is outlined. The supporting details focus on causes of the problems and address solutions. Signal words include a problem is, a solution is, the problem was solved by. The wider context Readers should be encouraged to develop a scheme for the various structures in expository texts through inde pendent experience with texts. To this end teachers should provide opportunities for students to experience the rich ness of expository writing, to choose expository texts as their leisure and school reading material, and to share their sustained readin~~ experiences with others through discus sion and writing. In conjunction with such wide reading of informational materials, a more direct teaching approach may be required to develop a schema of expository text structure and an ability to use such knowledge strategically. This approach mlay be particularly important for students READING HORIZONS, 1990, volume 31, #2 153 who have had limited experiences with reading informa tional materials. Modeling expository text structure use in think-alouds is one method of direct teaching. Modeling text structure use in think-alouds Think-alouds have often been used as a data gather ing method in research studies. However, many good teachers have always used think-alouds intuitively in in structional situations to explain how they think as they read. Think-alouds are thus appropriate for modeling text struc ture use and the reasoning involved. That is, a teacher ex plains how ideas are grouped together and how clusters of text are meaningfully combined. In addition the teacher shows how signal words are used to determine the underly ing organization and the functions served by these words in directing the thinking process. Think-alouds are particularly appropriate as a model ing device because, more than any other technique used to teach students about text structure, think-alouds show the use or application of text structure knowledge. Otherwise text structure knowledge could remain as relatively inert or static knowledge. Moreover, think-alouds can demonstrate flexibility in strategy use. Strategic readers use their knowl edge flexibly and do not approach each instance of text structure identically - sometimes opting to use one cue word but not another when using knowledge of text struc ture. For think-alouds to be effective instructional tools in teaching reading processes, Ehlinger (1988) found that they must 1) focus the attention of the learner by promoting the functional value of the task being modeled (e.g., indicat ing when, where, and why the strategy can be used), 2) in still self-sufficiency in the student (e.g., place responsibility 154 READING HORIZONS, 1990, volume 31, #2 on the students to apply the strategy by involving them in modeling situations and independent application), and 3) provide feedback in the form of assessment or evaluation. Verbal modeling through think-alouds must thus induce metacognitive involvement of the student with the structure of text. Suggestions for developing think-alouds using expository text structure knowledge Well-organized text with sub-headings Students first need to be shown how to detect and use knowledge of text structure on well-organized text, chapters or passages whose structure is readily apparent. In this way, students develop or expand their schema of expository text structure. Catterson points out (Shapiro, 1989) that text structure should be addressed at two levels. The macrolevel consists of the headings and subheadings of a chapter. The mi- crolevel, perhaps the paragraph level, is where such struc tural patterns as description, collection (listing or enumera tion and sequence), causation, problem solution, compari son/contrast are found. The think-aloud should make ex plicit the thinking involved by beginning at the boldface heading level and progressing through the organizational structures within paragraphs. Usually, at the beginning of the think-aloud, the teacher should indicate when, where and why the text strategy should be used. Having selected or designed a passage that contains one underlying text structure with explicit and appropriate key words, the teacher should think aloud while reading aloud. To show how to use a text structure strategy, the think-through should focus primarily on the structure. Students should follow along reading the passage. The sections below pre sent an example of a passage with an enumeration pattern, followed by a sample think-aloud on this text. READING HORIZONS, 1990, volume 31, #2 155 Sample of well-organized text with subheadings Ways to earn money Money is important, but how do we get it? A student may choose from several ways to make some money. A paper route One good way to make a steady income is to have a paper route. This means that you have to wake up early every morning and deliver papers whether it is in the cold of winter, the rainy spring, the hot, humid summer or the windy autumn. Arts and crafts sale Another good way to earn some money is to make crafts all year. Then you can have an arts and crafts sale. With a lot of crafts you can make a lot of money and have had the fun of making the crafts, too. A car wash A further way to make money is to have a car wash. You can go around the neighborhood and ask your neighbors ifthey would like their cars washed. Nearly everyone drives a car — some families have two or three of them — and nearly everyone's car gets dirty. Babysitting Also, ifyou are twelve years or over, you can be a babysitter. To get work as a babysitter it is usually necessary for you to take a babysitting course so that you know what your re sponsibilities are and how to carry them out. Ifyou are a good sitter, people will tell each other and the requests for your babysitting services will increase. Odd jobs Finally, you can do a variety of odd jobs in your neighborhood. Offer to mow people's lawns for a price, walk their dogs, or weed their gardens and flower beds. Besides these jobs, there is leaf-raking in the summer and snow shoveling in the winter. These are several easy ways that teenagers can earn some money. Sample think-aloud, at macrolevel. on well-organized text with subheadings (Text is instandard style; instructor'swords are italicized.) Weare going toreadabout ways to earn money. Take a look at the text in frontof you on this topic. Iwillshow you how Ithinkas I use a text structure strategy when reading. The firstthing to do is to get a quick overview of the textby using the subheadings. Once you know the organization of this text you can connect all the ideas you 156 READING HORIZONS, 1990, volume 31, #2 learn fromreading, or know fromyour experience, to this framework ofheadings. The titleis Ways to Earn Money. The firstsubheading is A pa per route. /predict that one good way to earn money is by having a paper route. The next four headings are Arts and crafts sale, A car wash, Babysitting andOdd jobs. Itseems thatthe authoris providing a listing ofseveral ways to make money. When Ilook at the firstsen tence under the firstsubheading, Isee words such as one good way, then Isee the words another good way under the next subtitle and down through the final three subtitles Ireada further way, also, and finally. These words support my thinking thatthe author willlist ways of earning money. The order in which the listing is presented really doesn't matter. The author could have begun withbaby-sitting. So, to summarize, the author willdescribe four main ways for students to earn money. Then the author willgive a listing ofsome oddjobs stu dents can do. Now let's go back and read all the information in the article. Iwillthinkaloudagain as you follow along. Well-organized texts with no subheads Some well-or ganized selections that can be used in think-alouds contain no subheadings but are stilltightly organized. They contain a superordinate structure such as a listing, within which ex ists a subordinate structure such as a sequence. In addi tion, each test structure is explicitly cued by appropriate di rectional words or phrases to which attention can be drawn in the think-aloud. For example, in the passage below, no tice the key words (for our purposes, they are italicized) explicitly cueing the student-composed piece, "How to wash your dog," which contains an enumeration structure fol lowed by sequential structure. Sample of well-organized text without subheadings There are two methods that can be used to shampoo your dog. The firstmethod is the "outside tub" method. To wash your dog out side the house, you will need a tub, some warm water, a large towel and, of course, your dog, ifyou can find him. In the second method, the "inside house" method you will need to use your bathtub. The bathtub should not be filledtoo full and the amount of shampoo used should not be large because an active dog READING HORIZONS, 1990, volume 31, #2 157 can spray water and shampoo all over your bathroom. In each of these two methods there are several steps to follow. Firstfill the tub with 10 cm. ofwarm water. Then take the dog's collar offand put him in. Third, shampoo the dog's back, legs, feet, and head. Fourth, rinse offthe shampoo. Next, take the dog out of the tub and let him shake. Finally, dry him offwith a towel. Sample think-aloud on well-organized text with no subheads (Text is instandard style; instructor'swords are italicized.) In this article, How to wash your dog, the structure has notbeen made "visible" through the use ofsubheadings. However, the struc ture has been made visible through the author's use of some very good signal words in each paragraph. Iwillthink aloud to show you how Iuse a text structure strategy to understand and remember this selection. First Ipredict that the selection willdescribe how to wash yourdog. The firstsentence saysThere are two methods that can be used to shampoo your dog. Okay, so there are two ways to wash your dog. Perhaps there will be a description of "how" in each method. Ikeep reading. The first method, there is my key wordfirst, and if Iskim down to the secondparagraph, Isee, In the second method, so in the next paragraph the second method willbe described. Igo back to the firstparagraph and keep reading The first method is the "outside tub" method. Okay. Now Ican jot down a subtitle in the margin. Itis Outside Tub Method. / guess the author will describe how to wash the dog using the outside tub method. Iwillkeep read ing. To wash your dog outside the house, you will need a tub, some warm water, a large towel and, of course, your dog if you can find him. So the author still does not describe how to wash the dog as was suggested in the title; rather the author lists the items Iwillneed to do the washing outdoors. Iwillgo on to the secondparagraph and read. In the second method, the "inside house" method you will need to use your bathtub. There is my cue word, the second method andit is "theinside house"method. I'lljot that subtitle next to the margin of the secondparagraph. Then Ireadon in the secondparagraph. The tub should not be filled too full and the amount of shampoo used should not be large because an active dog can spray water and shampoo all over your bathtub. So now I'm not getting a listing of items I'll need; Iguess Iwillneed most of the items that Iused in the "outside tub" method but I will have to be more careful about how much waterand howmuch shampoo Iwilluse.