Signals and Communication Technology Jaco du Preez Saurabh Sinha Millimeter- Wave Antennas: Configurations and Applications Signals and Communication Technology More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/4748 Jaco du Preez Saurabh Sinha (cid:129) Millimeter-Wave Antennas: fi Con gurations and Applications 123 JacoduPreez Saurabh Sinha University of Johannesburg University of Johannesburg Johannesburg Johannesburg SouthAfrica SouthAfrica ISSN 1860-4862 ISSN 1860-4870 (electronic) Signals andCommunication Technology ISBN978-3-319-35067-7 ISBN978-3-319-35068-4 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-35068-4 LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2016942505 ©SpringerInternationalPublishingSwitzerland2016 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsarereservedbythePublisher,whetherthewholeorpart of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission orinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilarordissimilar methodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publicationdoesnotimply,evenintheabsenceofaspecificstatement,thatsuchnamesareexemptfrom therelevantprotectivelawsandregulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authorsortheeditorsgiveawarranty,expressorimplied,withrespecttothematerialcontainedhereinor foranyerrorsoromissionsthatmayhavebeenmade. Printedonacid-freepaper ThisSpringerimprintispublishedbySpringerNature TheregisteredcompanyisSpringerInternationalPublishingAGSwitzerland Preface Since the inception of wireless systems, engineers have continuously strived to develop systems that utilize higher frequencies, in pursuit of numerous advantages that it may offer to particular applications. As a result, the components that con- stitute a typical wireless system—that is, the antenna and the analog and digital frontends—havebeenfiercelystudiedandremarkabledevelopmentshavesurfaced in the last century. While millimeter-wave systems are relatively new (only expe- riencing any real development since the 70s), they are arguably one of the fastest growing fields in wireless research. Rapidly developing standards and component technology have two major driving forces behind the tremendous growth that we have come to witness in the past decade. For researchers and designers entering this field, the vast extent of information, research results and systems that exist can be gruesomely overwhelming, which is wherethistextisintendedtoassist.Thistextisheavilyfocusedoncurrentresearch, and it is designed to cover as many different antenna configurations and applica- tions as possible. It should therefore enable a designer (or researcher, for that matter) to make an informed decision on one of the most critical components of a wirelesssystem.Asthetextprogresses,thereaderwillnoticethatspecialattention is paid to measurement techniques and practical results. While fundamental con- cepts form the baseline of each system that we intend to discuss, there are a multitudeofotherbooksthatintenselycoverrelevanttheory.Nonetheless,whereit is deemed applicable, this text does attempt to cover fundamental theory, but it is assumed that the reader has sound understanding of wireless systems and antenna concepts. Discussions in the introductory chapter are intended to provide an idea of development trends witnessed in millimeter-wave systems, and stretches from the earlieststageofthefieldupuntilmoderntimes,leavingthereaderreadytoexpand into the next six chapters. A second key part of the introductory chapter is a discussion on spectrum management and allocation, which is the first and perhaps the most crucial component necessary to develop any wireless system. Following this, there is no prescribed order in which the next five chapters should be v vi Preface approached,althoughthereareminorreferencesbetweensaidchapters,itiswritten so that the reader never feels disconnected from the core concept of the text. Chapters2–5focusontypicalantennatypesthatarescalabletomillimeter-wave dimensions. We begin with leaky-wave and surface-wave antennas in Chap. 2, a fundamental branch of millimeter-wave antennas, and one whose principles res- onate through the remainder of the book. We cover some basic design principles and concepts unique to leaky-wave antennas, which can be synthesized from a number of different structures, such as rectangular waveguides and microstrip arrays. Various types of printed antennas are discussed in Chap. 3, where we once again spend a short amount of time to cover some fundamental theory, before delvingintorecentlypublicationsonthemillimeter-wavescalingoftheseantennas. Printed antennas are highly desirable in applications with severe space constraints, and these antennas are typically capable of mechanical self-support. To cope with the extreme mechanical tolerances at such high frequencies, several configurations have been developed that, in some ways, mitigate the implications of these toler- ances, along with changes in approach to fabrication. In Chap. 4, one of the most actively developed fields at the moment, integrated antennas, is discussed. The requirements of developing radio standards in the 60, 77, and 94 GHz bands—compact size, low power, and the ability to mass produce—are truly well catered for by integrated solutions where the antenna is fabricated on the same substrate as supporting circuitry. As a result, a strong emphasis is placed on 60 GHz radio standards and the accompanying develop- ments. Chapter 5 is the final one where the antenna is the focal point, discussing millimeter-wave reflector and lens systems. Highlights of this chapter include the shift away from traditional reflector configurations (such as the popular parabolic dish)towardmorecompactstructuressuchasreflectarraysandlenses.Furthermore, we discuss beam formingsystems implemented with lens antennasand theirmany potential advantages in the domain of short-range wireless links. Thelasttwochaptersareintendedtotackletheantennaquestionfromasystems perspective, overviewing supporting circuitry and providing a detailed look into millimeter-wave applications. In conclusion, based on numerous discussions on manufacturing, design principles, and practical results from leading research groups, this text should aid designers and researchers to better understand their application and its required antenna system. The authors would like to recognize the research capacity grant of the Dept.: Higher Education and Training, South Africa for sponsoring this work. Furthermore,theauthorswouldliketorecognizeDr.RiëttedeLange,Postgraduate School, University of Johannesburg, South Africa, for her effective administration of this grant. Johannesburg, South Africa Jaco du Preez Saurabh Sinha Contents 1 Introduction to the World of Millimeter-Wave Systems. . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1 A Brief History of Millimeter-Wave Electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.2 The Millimeter-Wave Spectrum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.3 Wave Propagation at Millimeter-Wave Frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1.4 Outline of This Book. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 2 Leaky-Wave Antennas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 2.1 General Principles of Leaky Waves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 2.2 Extension into Millimeter-Wavelengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.3 Leaky-Wave Antenna Classification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.3.1 One-Dimensional Uniform Leaky-Wave Antennas. . . . . . . 22 2.3.2 One-Dimensional Periodic Leaky-Wave Antenna. . . . . . . . 25 2.3.3 Two-Dimensional Leaky-Wave Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 2.4 Closing Remarks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 3 Printed and Planar Antennas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 3.1 Classification of Printed and Planar Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 3.2 Microstrip Elements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 3.2.1 Theory of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 3.2.2 Feeding Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 3.2.3 Design Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 3.2.4 Considerations for Millimeter-Wave Operation . . . . . . . . . 45 3.3 Research Review. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 3.3.1 U-Slot Microstrip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 3.3.2 Vertical Patch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 3.3.3 Magneto-Electric Dipole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 3.3.4 Planar Yagi-Uda Arrays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 vii viii Contents 3.3.5 Conventional Printed Circuit Antennas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 3.3.6 Micromachined Patch Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 3.4 Closing Thoughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 4 Active Integrated Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 4.2 Integrated Waveguides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 4.2.1 Substrate-Integrated Waveguide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 4.2.2 Substrate-Integrated Non-radiative Dielectric Guide. . . . . . 65 4.2.3 Substrate-Integrated Image Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 4.3 Classification of Integrated Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 4.4 Integrated Transmitter Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 4.5 Integrated Receiver Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 4.5.1 Monopulse Antennas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 4.6 Integrated Phased Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 4.6.1 Phased Array Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 4.6.2 Applications of Phased Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 4.7 Integrated MIMO Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 4.8 Integrated Multiple Beam Antennas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 4.9 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 5 Reflector and Lens Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 5.1 Single Feed Reflectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 5.1.1 Feeding Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 5.1.2 Beamforming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 5.1.3 Focal Array Fed Reflectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 5.2 Reflectarrays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 5.2.1 Dual Reflector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 5.2.2 Reconfigurable Reflectarrays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 5.2.3 Folded Reflectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 5.2.4 Retrodirective Arrays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 5.3 Lens Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 5.3.1 Reduced Size Lens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 5.3.2 Rotman Lens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 5.3.3 Lüneburg Lens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 5.4 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 6 Millimeter-Wave Circuits and Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 6.1 High-Speed Data Converters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 6.1.1 ADCs for Millimeter-Wave Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 6.2 Voltage-Controlled Oscillators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 6.2.1 VCO Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Contents ix 6.3 Mixers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 6.3.1 Mixer Architectures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 6.4 Power Amplifiers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 6.4.1 Amplifier Figures of Merit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 6.4.2 Power Amplifier Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 6.4.3 Power Combining Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 6.5 Closing Remarks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 7 Practical Applications of Millimeter-Wave Antennas. . . . . . . . . . . . 133 7.1 Communication Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 7.1.1 Broadband Mobile Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 7.2 Radar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 7.2.1 Civil Applications of Millimeter-Wave Radar. . . . . . . . . . 145 7.2.2 Automotive Radar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 7.3 Imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 7.3.1 Millimeter-Wave Radiometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 7.3.2 Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 7.4 Closing Remarks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152