(J MIDDLE ENGLISH ANIMAL FABLE - A STUDY IN GENRE ROSE-MARIE SILKENS B. A., University of Victoria, 19&9 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS in the Department of English We accept this thesis as conforming to the required standard The University of British Columbia May, 197^ In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the Head of my Department or by his representatives. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. Department of English The University of British Columbia Vancouver 8, Canada [>te 10 May 197k a ABSTRACT This study examines animal fables written in Middle English. While the purposes and methods of these narratives differ widely, an examination of them bears out the thesis that the characterization peculiar to animal fable is the basis of the fulfillment of these several purposes. Middle English animal fables extant range in type from brief Aesopic prose narratives in homilies and treatises to sophisticated narrative poems, and in time from the thirteenth century to the late fifteenth century, although some exempla in homilies are believed to have earlier origins. Many of the brief exempla fables are the work of anonymous compilers, while the poets Chaucer, Langland, Lydgate and Henryson also used the genre, the two latter having written collections. The Middle English animal fables are not exclusively didactic. Indeed, Chaucer's Nun's Priest's Tale and the thirteenth-century The Vox and the Wolf are predominantly comic in tone, as are Lydgate's "The Churl and the Bird" and many of Henryson's Morail Fabillis. Satire also plays an impor tant part in a definition of the nature of fable, and the use of animal char acters for the purposes of political and social criticism is common to medieval manifestations of the genre. The depiction of animal characters combining traits both bestial and human is the basic characteristic of the fables. In the simple exempla or in heavily didactic or satirical narratives, the characterization is not developed beyond what is necessary to clarify the implications for the human world. The best fables, however, develop the ironies of fable characteriza tion, usually in a comic way, into lively and entertaining animal tales that reflect in various ways upon the human beings who serve as models for the ii characters. Although the Middle English animal fable includes brief narratives in the style of the Aesopic apologue as well as lengthier poems similar to the continental beast epic cycles, the common manner of portraying animals and developing the portrayals is to be found in all. The fables of Lydgate, Henryson and Chaucer combine basic Aesopic plots with beast epic characteristics. The animal fable in the hands of Middle English writers, while initially an imitative genre relying upon reworkings of Classical models, becomes a well-developed and highly entertaining form of narrative poetry. M. A. Manzalaoui, Supervisor iii CONTENTS Introduction: A Brief History of Medieval Fable Tradition 1 Chapter One: The Fable as Exemplum 10 Chapter Two: The Fables of John Lydgate 38 Chapter Three: Robert Henryson's Transformation of the Moral Fable 54 Chapter Four: The Beast Epics and Middle English Animal Fable 88 Chapter Five: The Apogee of the Beast Fable: Chaucer's Nun's Priest's Tale 111 Chapter Six:-' Satire and Social Criticism in the Animal Fable lh9 Conclusions 171- Bibliography 177 1 INTRODUCTION A BRIEF HISTORY OF MEDIEVAL FABLE TRADITION The fable is not a genre one associates particularly with the Middle Ages, and yet it was during the Middle Ages that the fable rose to its peak of popularity in Western Europe. Part of its popularity no doubt stemmed from its usefulness as a vehicle for moral instruction, and alongside the popular collections we find compilations made for the use of clerics. Although usually characterized as a "low" genre, the fable was also taken up by literary men and developed into some of the most vigorous verse that remains to us from the medieval period. This ubiquitous genre, although never given the literary esteem of other medieval genres, nevertheless boasts several prestigious exponents. The achievements of Chaucer and Henryson alone necessitate that we regard the medieval fable seriously, and attempt to ascertain why such immense diversities of style and achieve ment can exist within a single genre classification. The fable became known to medieval writers through two main collections. One, the fourth century Latin prose Romulus, claimed to be a direct transla tion from the Greek of Aesop, and this claim no doubt influenced its sub sequent popularity, but the collection was actually a reworking of the Latin verse fables of Phaedrus, composed in the first century A. D.,^ and of the other chief source drawn upon by medieval fabulists, the collection 2 of Avianus, dating from the third or fourth century. These verse fables 3 were selected and translated from the Greek of Babrius, a Hellenized Roman of the first century A. D. The fables of Avianus, just as the Romulus, were accepted as Aesop'er and were freely translated, rewritten, and selected for other collections throughout the Middle Ages. 2 Generally speaking, the Romulus and the collection of Avianus contain little literary excellence. They are simple reworkings of the older Aesopic fables, and inherit the characteristic sparseness and brevity of the Greek tradition from them. Babrius and Phaedrus were the only Roman poets, so far as is known, who attempted to treat the fable as a separate genre. It is commonly felt that Babrius' fables aspire to some literary excellence in purity of versification and precision of style. Phaedrus' style, however, is quite different. Rather than drawing generally applicable morals from his narratives, he gives them specific political significances, and uses them as vehicles of protest. However, in spite of their satirical tendency, Phaedrus' fables are short and curt--"maigre et miserable," as one critic has k described the collection. One other instance of a Latin fable deserves mention, even though it was not known in the Middle Ages, and that is the apologue of the city and country rats in a satire by Horace. Phaedrus was not the only Roman to discover the suitability of the fable as satire. The Greek fable tradition from which Phaedrus and Babrius drew their material was that of the Aesopic fable as we think of it--a brief narrative which includes only what points directly to the conclusion, which is a piece of good counsel or a precept of conduct. The Greeks did make extensive use of the fable, although scholars disagree as to whether or not they thought of it as a distinct genre. Aesop, if he did exist, did not record the prose stories he told, and he was not the first Greek to use the form. In Hesiod's Works and Days there is a brief fable--"The Hawk and the Nightingale"—which shows all the traits of the "Aesopic" fable two centuries before Aesop, who through the testimony of Herodotus can be dated in the sixth century B. C. But regardless of their origin, the Greek fables all have the same charac teristic brevity, a complete lack of embellishment, a narrative that includes 3 only what is necessary to convey and point to the "moral," and an instruct- 5 lve purpose. This, then, was the Classical fable tradition as it was passed on to the Middle Ages through Avianus and the Romulus. The Greeks and Romans, however, were not the only fabulists. It has been conjectured that the Greek fable has oriental sources--Babrius states that the Greeks got the fable from the Syrians—and it is known that Eastern apologues were spread throughout Europe during the Middle Ages by the Arabs, by the Jews in Spain, and by returning Crusaders. The Indian Pantcha-Tantra^ dates from about the third century before Christ. It was reworked, with additions, and translated into Old Persian and Arabic before eventually appearing in Europe to enjoy a great vogue. These fables have an instructive purpose, but have a harsher tone than the Classical fables. Many are concerned with illustrating the harshness of life with little other alternative than resig nation. ^ By the tenth century, the popularity of the Romulus and Avianus collec tions was established. The imitations, reworkings and compilations of fables were extensive. Churchmen on the Continent and in England reworked them for the use of schoolboys. They employed them in their treatises and compiled them for the use of other clerics, along with other didactic illus trative tales. The fables, still Aesopic in character, came to be used as sermon exempla as well, and thus the need for collections increased. However, fables were not limited to utilitarian purposes. The animal tales also became popular for themselves, independent of the exemplum usage. Several French versions of Aesopic fables appeared as court poetry. Q At about the end of the twelfth century, Marie de France wrote her Fables, consisting of 103 vernacular poems in octosyllabic verse, dedicated to a certain "cunte Williame." About a century and a half later, two collec tions of Ysopets enjoyed great popularity. The Ysopets I, or Ysopet- Avionnet, were composed in octosyllabic verse for Jeanne de Bourgogne. They include sixty-four fables from Romulus and eighteen from Avianus. Ysopets II consists of verse fables loosely translated from the late twelfth- century Latin verse Novus Aesopus and Novus Avianus of Alexander of Neckam.9 Although these essentially Aesopic fables were intended for a lay audience, unlike most of the Latin fables they drew their material from, they are still heavily moral. Even the fables of Marie de France reflect a greater interest in the moral to be drawn from them than in the narrative itself, which is as terse and brief as the Classical Aesopic fables. However, Marie is original in one regard. In the morals appended to each fable, she often stresses the injustices of the world that the fables reflect-- the suppression of the weak by the strong. As Phaedrus, Marie uses the fable as a form of protest, but rather than turning them into political or other satire, she uses the "morals" to express sympathy for the unfortu nate victim and to protest injustice in a general humanitarian way. The animal narratives in Middle English are of many different types, even though the initial sources for all are the basic Aesopic fables dis cussed above. The characteristics of these fables, however, are not en tirely consistent, and some definition of "fable" ought to be attempted to ascertain the characteristics of the genre as it was represented, by the thirteenth century, in works known to English fabulists. Tradition has established that the fable is a brief narrative with animals as characters, in prose or verse. Human characters may be included, but never exclusively. This basic criterion is straightforward enough. The animals' activities illustrate a truth about mankind that the author 5 wishes to communicate. The animals thus have an illustrative, but not necessarily an allegorical function. The fable does present a moral or a thesis in the form of narrative, as does an allegory, but the fable does not imply that the animals represent abstractions. We must rule out allegory as part of a definition, then, while admitting that the represen tative nature of the fable characters has the potential--often realized in the imitative medieval Aesopic fables--of robbing them of a good deal of vitality. Also, we must turn to the kind of truth the author wishes to communicate, and the way in which he does this, i. e. in a straightforward moral drawn directly from the narrative, or through the narrative itself, or in both ways. Here we must turn to individual works. In the fables of Babrius and Avianus and in the Romulus collections we have brief animal narratives which illustrate a generally applicable thesis that is appended to the narrative proper. The animals are representative of human beings in a general way. The purpose is ostensibly moral, but the mcrral is cloaked in an amusing story. However, not all Classical fables conform to this descrip tion. Horace's one fable is satirical rather than forthrightly moral, and its purpose is thus to point out a human weakness without supplying a moral set up as a general remedy. Phaedrus1 fables serve a political purpose- social and political particulars are applied, rather than the weaknesses of human beings in general. These works were not known in the Middle Ages, and yet similar satirical tendencies occur in many medieval fables. Whereas we can safely say that the fable is a prose or verse narrative in which animals are characters whose behaviour is meant to be representative of human beings, it becomes more difficult to determine whether the nature of the fable is entirely didactic or satirical. I purpose to show in this study that in the Middle Ages there were