University of Khartoum Faculty of Economic and Social Studies Department of Political Science Middle Class and Sufism: The Case Study of the Sammaniyya Order Branch of Shaikh Al Bur’ai By Amani Mohamed El Obeid Abdel Rahman A Dissertation submitted for the fulfillment of the requirements of the Ph.D Degree in Political Science, University of Khartoum May 2008 1 Dedication This dissertation is dedicated to the soul of an extra-ordinary Sufi Shaikh who managed to revive Sudanese tolerant popular Sufism: Shaikh Abdel Rahim Al Bur’ai Also the dissertation is dedicated to the Soul of my beloved father whose academic discussions while accompanying him in his fourteen years of immobility still alive in my memory: My father Prof. Obeid 2 A Pictures of Shaikh Al Bur’ai among his disciples in Al Zariba in Kordofan Shaikh Al Bur’ai among disciples of men and women 3 North Kordofan State: Department of Geography-University of Khartoum 4 Abstract The emphasis of this research will be on Sufism and the middle class in Sudan, as the target group of Shaikh Al Bur’ai’s centre. Shaikh Al Bur’ai is a product of the neo- Sufi phenomenon, where ordinary Sufi practices including karama making or (miracle doing) are used side by side with orthodox Islam practices. This research explains the increasing appeal of Sufism to urbanites and others who used to be secular in Sudan. The same phenomenon in Sudan is taking place in Morocco, Turkey and Indonesian, where Sufism has had become a conspicuous aspect of urban middle class religiosity. Shaikh Al Bur’ai (1923-2005) is one of the most celebrated Shaikhs of the Sammaniyya Sufi order in Sudan. He managed to establish an open edged tariqa that attracted large sections of the educated Sudanese middle class. Started as an individual Sammani order Shaikh in 1944, Shaikh Al Bur’ai gradually became popular for his unusual abilities of karama making, healing and mediation in tribal conflicts. During the 1980s he was able to achieve wide popularity among the middle class, as his poetry was broadcasted, published and propagated by the media. His poetry (Madih) which represents a complement to litanies dominated the media in Sudan for the last twenty years. Shaikh Al Bur’ai found individual solutions to the problems of the Sudanese middle class. In the 1990s, Shaikh Al Bur’ai appeared as a celebrated national figure who had strong ties with most Sudanese politicians either in the Sudanese government of the Ingazh regime or in the opposition circles. Shaikh Al Bur’ai practiced politics not as a politician but as a social reformer, who had different Khalawi providing charity works throughout Sudan. Shaikh Al Bur’ai’s influence is reflected in the transformation into Sufism of large numbers of the youth, intellectuals, professionals and employees of public and private sector. The Sudanese middle class has not been studied thoroughly. In the case of Sudan, the “middle class” is a product of colonialism. This fact led to an identity crisis of the middle class resulted out of the situation of collaboration with colonialism and being leaders of decolonization at the same time This fact resulted in the sequent limitation of the educated strata as a leading political faction. Due to identity crisis the educated middle class was divided into different factions such as the effendiyya and turbans which include the educated strata grew out of colonialism “effendiyya” and the other strata graduated from religious institution who studied Shari’a sciences “the turbans”. Later it was divided into the main sectarian political powers and finally it was divided between adovates of secularaism and advocates of Shari’a. The dissertation is trying to answer the question: To what extent the phenomenon of Shaikh Al Bur’ai represented the crisis of the middle class in Sudan? The middle class represented the audience target group of Shaikh Al Bur’ai as it is the most class seriously affected by identity and the economic crises that took place in Sudan since the last thirty years. The educated middle class was economically impoverished and politically marginalized. In particular it is the class that was badly affected by the economic policies and macro-structures of the 1990s that witnessed a total-de- subsidization and the weakening of public sector that coincided with privatization. The process of privatization witnessed thousands of lay-offs. The inability of the dominant Sufi orders to offer a moderate Islamic identity to millions of Sudanese at a time of crisis made Shaikh Al Bur’ai a refuge, savior and representative of the moderate tolerant Islam. 5 ﺔﺻﻼﺨﻟا ﺔﻘﺒﻄﻟا ﻞﺜﻤﺗ ﺚﻴﺣ ،نادﻮﺴﻟا ﻰﻓ ﻰﻄﺳﻮﻟا ﺔﻘﺒﻄﻟا و ﺔﻴﻓﻮﺼﻟا ﺔﺳارﺪﻟ فﺪﻬﻳ ﺚﺤﺒﻟا اﺬه ةﺪﻳﺪﺠﻟا ﺔﻴﻓﻮﺼﻟا ةﺮهﺎﻈﻟ جﺎﺘﻧ ﻰﻋﺮﺒﻟا ﺦﻴﺸﻟا ﻞﺜﻤﻳ .ﻰﻋﺮﺒﻟا ﺦﻴﺸﻟا ﺰآﺮﻣ ىﺪﻳﺮﻣ ﺔﻴﺒﻟﺎﻏ ﻰﻄﺳﻮﻟا ﻊﻣ ﺐﻨﺟ ﻰﻟا ﺎﺒﻨﺟ ﻪﻓﻼﺧ و تﺎﻣاﺮآ ﻦﻣ ﺔﻳﺪﻴﻠﻘﺘﻟا ﺔﻴﻓﻮﺼﻟا و ﻰﺒﻌﺸﻟا مﻼﺳﻻا تﺎﺳرﺎﻤﻣ ﺪﺟﻮﺗ ﺚﻴﺣ .ﻰﻟﻮﺻﻻا مﻼﺳﻻا تﺎﺳرﺎﻤﻣ ﺖﻧﺎآ ﻰﺘﻟا ﺔﻳﺮﻀﺤﻟا ﻖﻃﺎﻨﻤﻟا ﻰﻓ ﺔﻴﻓﻮﺼﻟا ﻮﺤﻧ ﺪﻳاﺰﺘﻤﻟا لﻮﺤﺘﻟا ﺔﺳارﺪﻟ فﺪﻬﻳ ﺚﺤﺒﻟا اﺬه ﻖﻃﺎﻨﻤﻟا ﻰﻓ فﻮﺼﺘﻟا ﻰﻟا ﺔﺒﻧﺎﻤﻠﻌﻟا ﻦﻣ لﻮﺤﺘﻟا) ةﺮهﺎﻈﻟا ﻩﺬه ﺲﻔﻧ .نادﻮﺴﻟا ﻰﻓ ﺔﻴﻧﺎﻤﻠﻌﻟﺎﺑ ﻢﺴﺘﺗ ﺚﻴﺣ ﺎﻴﺴﻴﻧوﺪﻧأ و ﺎﻴآﺮﺗ ،بﺮﻐﻤﻟا ﻰﻓ ﺪﺟﻮﺗ (ﻦﻴﻤﻠﻌﺘﻤﻟا ﻦﻣ ﻰﻄﺳﻮﻟا ﺔﻘﺒﻄﻟا داﺮﻓأ ﻂﺳوو ﺔﻳﺮﻀﺤﻟا .ﺔﻳﺮﻀﺤﻟا ﻰﻄﺳﻮﻟا ﺔﻘﺒﻄﻟا ىﺪﻟ ﻦﻳﺪﻟا ﻮﺤﻧ لﻮﺤﺘﻟا ﻰﻓ ﻢﻬﻣ نﻮﻜﻣ فﻮﺼﺘﻟا ﺢﺒﺻأ ﻰﻓ ﺔﻴﻧﺎﻤﺴﻟا ﺔﻘﺑﺮﻄﻟا ﻰﻟا ﻰﻤﺘﻨﺗ ﺔﻴﻓﻮﺻ ﺔﻴﺼﺨﺷ ﻢهأ ﺮﺒﺘﻌﻳ (2005-1923) ﻰﻋﺮﺒﻟا ﺦﻴﺷ ﻦﻣ ةﺮﻴﺒآ اًداﺪﻋأ ﺎﻬﻴﻟإ ﺖﺑﺬﺟ ،ﺔﻳﻮﻀﻌﻟا ﺔﺣﻮﺘﻔﻣ ﺔﻘﻳﺮﻃ ﺲﻴﺳﺄﺗ ﻰﻓ ﻰﻋﺮﺒﻟا ﺦﻴﺷ ﺢﺠﻧ .نادﻮﺴﻟا ﺖﻴﺼﻟا ﻊﺋاذ ﺢﺒﺻأ ﺎًﻴﺠﻳرﺪﺗ و ىﺪﻴﻠﻘﺗ (ﻰﻜﻓ) ﻦﻳد ﻞﺟﺮآ ﻪﺗﺎﻴﺣ أﺪﺑ .ﻰﻄﺳﻮﻟا ﺔﻘﺒﻄﻟا ﻦﻣ ﻦﻴﻤﻠﻌﺘﻤﻟا لﻼﺧ .ﺔﻴﻠﺒﻘﻟا ﻞآﺎﺸﻤﻟا ﻞﺣ و ﻰﺿﺮﻤﻟا جﻼﻋ و تﺎﻣاﺮﻜﻟﺎﺑ نﺎﻴﺗﻻا ﻰﻠﻋ ﺔﻳدﺎﻌﻟا ﺮﻴﻏ ﻪﺗارﺪﻘﻤﺑ ﺮﺸﻨﺗ و عاﺬﺗ ﺖﺤﺒﺻأ ﻰﺘﻟا ﺢﻳﺪﻤﻟا ﺪﺋﺎﺼﻘﺑ ﻰﻄﺳﻮﻟا ﺔﻘﺒﻄﻟا داﺮﻓﻷ ﺔﺠﺤﻣ و ارﻮﻬﺸﻣ ﺢﺒﺻأ تﺎﻨﻴﻧﺎﻤﺜﻟا -داروﻸﻟ ﺔﻠﻤﻜﻣ ﻰه و -ﺢﻳﺪﻤﻟا ﺪﺋﺎﺼﻗ ﺖﺤﺿأ ﺔﻴﺿﺎﻤﻟا ﺎﻣﺎﻋ ﻦﻳﺮﺸﻌﻟا لﻼﺧو مﻼﻋﻻا ﻂﺋﺎﺳو ﺔﻄﺳاﻮﺑ ﺔﻳدﺮﻓ ﻻﻮﻠﺣ ﺪﺟﻮﻳ نأ عﺎﻄﺘﺳإ ﻰﻋﺮﺒﻟا ﺦﻴﺸﻟأ .ﺔﻴﻧادﻮﺴﻟا مﻼﻋﻷا ةﺰﻬﺟأ ﻰﻓ ﺔﻗﻮﻣﺮﻣ ﺔﻧﺎﻜﻣ ﻞﺘﺤﺗ .ﻰﻄﺳ ﻮﻟا ﺔﻘﺒﻄﻟا ﻞآﺎﺸﻤﻟ ﻢﻈﻌﻣ ﻊﻣ ﺔﻳﻮﻗ ﺮﺻاوأ ﺎﻬﻟ ﺔﻴﻣﻮﻗ ﺔﻴﺼﺨﺸآ ﻰﻋﺮﺒﻟا ﺦﻴﺷ ﺮﻬﻇ تﺎﻨﻴﻌﺴﺘﻟا ﺮﺧاوأ ﻰﻓ ﺲﻴﻟ ﺔﺳﺎﻴﺴﻟا سرﺎﻣ ﻰﻋﺮﺒﻟا ﺦﻴﺸﻟا . ﺔﺿرﺎﻌﻤﻟا ﻰﻓ وأ ذﺎﻘﻧﻹا ﺔﻣﻮﻜﺣ ﻰﻓ ﻦﻴﻴﻧادﻮﺴﻟا ﻦﻴﻴﺳﺎﻴﺴﻟا .نادﻮﺴﻟا عﺎﻘﺑ ﻞآ ﻰﻓ ﻰﻋﻮﻄﻟا ﻞﻤﻌﻟا مﺪﻘﺗ ةﺪﻋ ىوﻼﺧ ﻪﻟ ﻰﻋﺎﻤﺘﺟأ ﺢﻠﺼﻤآ ﻦﻜﻟ و ﻰﺳﺎﻴﺴآ ﺔﻘﺒﻄﻟا ﻰﻤﻠﻌﺘﻣ و بﺎﺒﺸﻟا ﻦﻣ ةﺮﻴﺒآ اُداﺪﻋأ لﻮﺤﻳ نأ عﺎﻄﺘﺳإ ﻪﻧا ﻰﻓ ﻰﻋﺮﺒﻟا ﺦﻴﺷ ﺔﻴﻤهأ ﻦﻤﻜﺗ ﺔﻴﻧادﻮﺴﻟا ﺔﻘﺒﻄﻟا .فﻮﺼﺘﻟا ﻰﻟا صﺎﺨﻟا و مﺎﻌﻟا عﺎﻄﻘﻟا ﻰﻔﻇﻮﻣ و ﻦﻴﻴﻨﻬﻤﻟا و ﻦﻴﻔﻘﺜﻤﻟا ،ﻰﻄﺳﻮﻟا . ىرﺎﻤﻌﺘﺳﻹا ﺪﻬﻌﻟا ﻰﻓ ﻰﻄﺳﻮﻟا ﺔﻘﺒﻄﻟا تﺪﻟو نادﻮﺴﻟا ﺔﻟﺎﺣ ﻰﻓ و ، ﺔﻴﻓﺎآ ﺔﺳارﺪﺑ ﻆﺤﺗ ﻢﻟ ﻰﻄﺳﻮﻟا ﺔﻄﺳاﻮﺑ ﺖﻘﻠﺧ ﻰﺘﻟا ﺔﻘﺒﻄﻟا ﺎﻬﻧأ ﻦﻣ ﺖﺠﺘﻧ ﻰﻄﺳﻮﻟا ﺔﻘﺒﻄﻟا ﻰﻓ ﺔﻳﻮه ﺔﻣزأ روﺬﺑ تﺪﺟوأ ﺔﺒﻘﺤﻟا ﻩﺬه ﻊﺿﻮﻟا اﺬه . رﺎﻤﻌﺘﺳﻹا ﻦﻣ ﻰﻨﻃﻮﻟارﺮﺤﺘﻟا تدﺎﻗ ﻰﺘﻟا ﺔﻘﺒﻄﻟا ﺲﻔﻧ ﻰهو ﻪﻌﻣ ﺖﻧوﺎﻌﺗ و رﺎﻤﻌﺘﺳﻻا ةﺪﺋار ﺔﻘﺒﻄآ ﺎﻬﻣﺎﺴﻘﻧإ و ﺎﻬﻔﻌﺿ ﻪﻨﻋ ﺞﺘﻧ ﺎﻤﻣ .ﺔﻳاﺪﺒﻟا ﺬﻨﻣ ﺔﻳﻮه ﺔﻣزأ ﺔﻴﻧادﻮﺴﻟا ﻰﻄﺳﻮﻟا ﺔﻘﺒﻄﻠﻟ ﻖﻠﺧ ىﻮﻘﻟا ﻦﻴﺑ ﺔﻤﺴﻘﻨﻣ ،تﺎﻣﺎﻤﻌﻟا بﺎﺤﺻأ و ﺔﻳﺪﻨﻓﻷا ﻦﻴﺑ ﺎﻬﺴﻔﻧ ﻰﻠﻋ ﺔﻤﺴﻘﻨﻣ ﺎﻬﻠﻌﺟ ىﺬﻟا ءﻰﺸﻟا .ﺎﻴﺳﺎﻴﺳ .ﺔﻴﻧﺎﻤﻠﻌﻟا و ﺔﻌﻳﺮﺸﻟا ةﺎﻋد ﻦﻴﺑ و ﺔﻴﻤﺘﺨﻟا و رﺎﺼﻧﻷا ﺔﻴﻔﺋﺎﻄﻟا ﺔﻘﺒﻄﻟا ﺔﻣزأ ﻰﻋﺮﺒﻟا ﺦﻴﺸﻟا ةﺮهﺎﻇ ﻞﺜﻤﺗ ىﺪﻣ ىأ ﻰﻟا لاﺆﺴﻟا ﻰﻠﻋ ﺔﺑﺎﺟﻹا ﺚﺤﺒﻟا لوﺎﺤﻳ ﺔﻘﺒﻃ ﺮﺜآأ ﻰه ﻰﻄﺳﻮﻟا ﺔﻘﺒﻄﻟا و .ﻰﻋﺮﺒﻟا ﺦﻴﺸﻟا ﺰآاﺮﻣ ﻰﻓ ﺮﺒآﻻا رﻮﻀﺤﻟا ﻞﺜﻤﺗ ذإ ؟ﻰﻄﺳﻮﻟا ﺎٌﺻﻮﺼﺧ .ﺔﻴﺿﺎﻤﻟا مﺎﻋ ﻦﻴﺛﻼﺜﻟا لﻼﺧ ﻰﻓ نادﻮﺴﻟا ﻰﻓ ﺔﻳدﺎﺼﺘﻗﻹا ﺔﻣزﻷﺎﺑو ﺔﻳﻮﻬﻟا ﺔﻣزﺄﺑ ﺎﺒﻠﺳ تﺮﺛﺄﺗ لﻼﺧ ﺔﻟوﺪﻟا ﺎﻬﺘﻨﺒﺗ ﻰﺘﻟا ﺔﻴﻠﻜﻟا ﺔﻳدﺎﺼﺘﻗﻹا تﺎﺳﺎﻴﺴﻟﺎﺑ ﺔﻴﺛرﺎآ ةرﻮﺼﺑ تﺮﺛﺄﺗ ﻰﺘﻟا ﺔﻘﺒﻄﻟا ﻰه عﺎﻄﻘﻟا ﺔﻴﻔﺼﺗ و ﺔﻴﺳﺎﺳﻻا ﻊﻠﺴﻟا و ﺔﺤﺼﻟا و ﻢﻴﻠﻌﺘﻟا ﻦﻋ ﺎٌﻴﻠآ ﻢﻋﺪﻟا ﻊﻓر تﺪﻬﺷ ﻰﺘﻟاو ، تﺎﻨﻴﻌﺴﺘﻟا .مﺎﻌﻟا ﺢﻟﺎﺼﻟا ﻰﻟا ﻦﻴﻟﺎﺤﻤﻟا فﻻا ﺎﻬﻨﻋ ﺞﺘﻧ ﻰﺘﻟاو ﺔﺼﺨﺼﺨﻟا ﺔﺠﻴﺘﻧ مﺎﻌﻟا ﺔﻟﺪﺘﻌﻣ ﺔﻴﻣﻼﺳأ ﺔﻳﻮه حﺮﻃ ﻰﻓ ﺔﺒﻨﻳﺪﻟا تﺎﻋﺎﻤﺠﻟا و ةﺪﺋﺎﺴﻟا ﺔﻴﻓﻮﺼﻟا قﺮﻄﻟا ةرﺪﻘﻣ مﺪﻋ ﺄﺠﻠﻣ و اٌﺬﻘﻨﻣ ﻰﻋﺮﺒﻟا ﺦﻴﺷ ﻦﻣ ﻞﻌﺟ ﺔﻴﻋﺎﻤﺘﺟﻻا و ﺔﻴﺳﺎﻴﺴﻟا ﺔﻣزﻻا ةﺄﻃو ﺖﺤﺗ ﻦﺒﺒﻧادﻮﺴﻟا ﻦﻣ ﻦﻴﻳﻼﻤﻠﻟ .ﻰﺒﻌﺸﻟا ﻰﻄﺳﻮﻟا مﻼﺳﻺﻠﻟ ﻼٌ ﺜﻤﻣ و 6 Acknowledgement Looking back at the late part of the year 1996, I found that it is inevitable to talk about Professor Obeid (1933-1996), my father, and his academic contribution in the formation of my academic aspiration. Professor Obeid worked in 1970-1971 as Structor of African Studies in University of Southern California, as associate Professor in Comparative Culture, University of California, Irvine in 1971-.1972 and as adjunct Professor of Public Administration in Shaw University, Raleigh North Carolina in 1972- 1973. It is worth mentioning that Professor Obeid, is the first Sudanese to make a successful academic TV programme in the United States in ABC Channel-Los Angeles, under the title of “Reflections and New Directions: The African Heritage”, as part of the academic programmes of University of Southern California. The programme was broadcasted for more than ten years since 1973. Though I was a child at the time of broadcasting this academic programme, yet the future discussions with Professor Obeid on the academic content of the program and other academic topics made me equipped with instruments and tools of knowledge. Prof. Obeid unfinished Ph.D thesis and research on Comparative Religions conducted in 1971-1972 in University of California, Irvine made him able to help me in theorizing the religious phenomena. Words are unable to express thanks to Prof. Awad Al Sid Al Karsani for his unfailing interest in my academic development. His belief in my intellectual abilities and my abilities in overcoming any sort of normal and up normal difficulties made me equipped with power to go forward. His continuous encouragement pushed me to uncover different religious and political phenomena in the field. The scholar thinking of Prof. Al Karsani guided me to discover different fields of this research. His patience in reading and analyzing the drafts despite his vast responsibilities is really appreciated. I am really thankful for the generosity of his family in welcoming me for long times for discussions. I am indebted to the Centre d’ Etudes et de Documentation Econmique, Juridique et Social (CEDEJ) for the valuable help they give. CEDEJ facilitated and funded an academic trip for me to Cairo in October 2004 in order to have full access to CEDEJ and American University in Cairo (AUC) libraries. This is in order to be acquainted with the new publications in the field of Islamic, Sufi and Sudanese studies. Special thanks to Francios Ireton who introduced me to important works on Weber and Islam. His valuable help for me while he was the Director of CEDEJ in Khartoum, and for his personal commitments to help in different ways, while he was in Cairo is really appreciated. Special thanks to Karim Rahem for his help while he was director of CEDEJ in Sudan. Thanks and gratitude to the Centre of Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies- University of Bergen, which donated me a scholarship to participate in the 7th International Conference on Sudanese Studies in Bergen University on April 6th-8th 2006. It was a valuable chance for me to contact scholars from all over the world who are working on Sudanese Studies and to be able to know the recent researches in the field. A longer stay in Bergen was facilitated by Mariane Boe in order to survey the Sufi manuscripts found in the Centre of Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies and Professor O’Fahey’s collections on Sudanese Sufi orders. It is worth mentioning that CEDEJ also 7 facilitated this longer stay. Thanks are to Ghiffari Fadlalla who gave a lot of his time for helping me in different ways to stay in Bergen. Thanks are extended to all the staff of the National Records Office (NRO)- Khartoum for their generous welcome and efficiency in providing me with the needed information. I also thank Abdel Rahim Haj Ahmed, the most important biographer of Shaikh Al Bur’ai and his grandson who provided me with all the publications of Al Asbat Centre that collected the works of Shaikh Al Bur’ai. His generosity with me is highly appreciated. Thanks are extended to the family of Shaikh Al Bur’ai in Al Zariba, especially his wife Awatif Muhammad Manna who hosted me while I was doing my fieldwork in Al Zariba in January 2000 and in September 2002. The generosity of her and her sons and daughter is highly appreciated. Special thanks to my beloved mother Nafissa Salim for her continuous encouragement and her support during writing this dissertation. Her support was essential to go forward. Also special thanks to my dear brother Ayman for his support, help and continuous encouragement and for providing me with all facilities I needed to go forward. 8 Table of Contents Acknowledgement..............................................................................................................7 Table of Contents................................................................................................................9 Chapter one.......................................................................................................................12 Social Sciences and Challenges of Studying Islamic and Sufi Revival............................12 1.1 Social Sciences and New Challenges in Studying Islamic Revival............................12 1.2 Hypothesis of The Research.......................................................................................14 1.3 Sources Used in The Study.........................................................................................15 1.4 Literature Review: Theoretical Approaches..............................................................16 1.4.1 Islam and Weberian Approach...........................................................................17 1.4.2 Islam and Orientalism........................................................................................26 1.4.3 The Marxist Theoretical Frame Work...............................................................27 1.4.4 Islam and Charismatic Leader...........................................................................30 1.4.5 Social Sciences and Studying Biography of Charismatic leaders.....................33 1.4.6 Sufi Studies........................................................................................................34 1.4.7 Conceptual interpretation of Sufism..................................................................37 1.5 Sufism in Sudan: Popular Islam in Sudan..................................................................38 1.5.1 The Centralized Turuq........................................................................................38 1.6 Difficulty of Studying The Phenomenon of Shaikh Al Bur’ai................................39 1.7 Rural-Urban Dichotomy of the Phenomenon of Shaikh Al Bur’ai..........................41 1.8 The Concept of Crisis..............................................................................................41 1.9 The Concept of The Middle Class: Criteria of Definition.......................................43 1.10 The Study Approach................................................................................................45 1.11 Organization of The Research................................................................................46 Chapter Two......................................................................................................................50 Sufism: From Rural to Urban Areas.................................................................................50 2.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................50 2.2 Searching for Identity and Sufism............................................................................53 2.3 Neo-Sufi Orders.......................................................................................................57 2.4 Sudan Crisis Influence on Religious (Sufi) Re-Orientation....................................61 2.5 The Phenomenon of Shaikh Al Bur’ai: Neo-Sufi Individual Faki.........................62 2.6 The Baraka (blessing) and Karama (miracle doings) of Shaikh Al Bur’ai.............64 2.7 Kordofan: Milieu of Individual Fakis.....................................................................70 2.7.1 History of Kordofan......................................................................................71 2.7.2 Tribal Formation in Kordofan.......................................................................73 2.7.3 Socio-Economic set up of Kordofan.............................................................77 2.7.4 Islam in Kordofan........................................................................................78 2.7.5 Individual Fakis in Kordofan.......................................................................79 2.8 Conlusion.................................................................................................................80 Chapter Three....................................................................................................................81 The Identity Crisis of The Sudanese Middle Class...........................................................81 3.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................81 3.2 Definition, Characteristics and the formation of the Sudanese Middle class...........81 9 3.3 Identity Crisis of the Sudanese Middle Class...........................................................84 3.4 Limitations of the Sudanese Middle Class...............................................................96 3.5 Economic Crisis and the Sudanese Middle Class.....................................................98 3.6 Conclusion..............................................................................................................102 Chapter Four...................................................................................................................104 Shaikh Al Bur’ai’s Sufi Doctrine....................................................................................104 4.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................104 4.2 Doctrine of the Sammaniyya Tariqa...................................................................104 4.2.1 Doctrine of Al-Samman....................................................................................104 4.2.2 Doctrine of Ahmad Al Tayyib Al Bashir..........................................................109 4.3 The Sufi Chain of Shaikh Al Bur’ai........................................................................111 4.4 Doctrine of Shaikh Al Bur’ai.................................................................................113 4.5 Litanies of The Sammaniyya Tariqa.....................................................................116 4.6 Litanies Developed by Shaikh Al Bur’ai...............................................................117 4.7 Some Narrations of Karamat.................................................................................121 4.8 Shaikh Al Bur’ai and Healing Activities...............................................................127 4.9 Shaikh Al Bur’ai’s Relations with Other Sammaniyya Centres............................130 4.10 Why Shaikh Al Bur’ai is considered a moderate Sufi Shaikh?.............................134 4.11 Conclusion.............................................................................................................134 Chapter Five....................................................................................................................136 Shaikh Al Burai ’s Poetry and Madih.............................................................................136 5.1 Introduction: To What extent Sufi Poetry Plays role in Spreading Doctrine?........136 5.2 Poetry and Madih in Sudan.....................................................................................139 5.3 Sammaniyya Tariqa and Poetry (Madih) in Sudan................................................143 5.4 Shaikh Al Bur’ai and Madih...................................................................................146 5.5 Main Themes of Shaikh Al Bur’ai’s Poetry...........................................................150 5.5.1 The Sufi Doctrine and Glorification of the Prophet.........................................150 5.5.2 Sufi Initiation and making Litanies..................................................................154 5.5.3 Poetry for Glorifying Islamic Pillars...............................................................155 5.5.4 Social Issues......................................................................................................156 5.5.4.1 Moral Reform and self-discipline.............................................................156 5.5.4.2 Women......................................................................................................162 5.5.4.3 Fighting harmful Sudanese traditions......................................................164 5.5.5 Karama..........................................................................................................165 5.5.6 Charity works.................................................................................................167 5.5.7 Anti Salafi and Wahabi Stand........................................................................168 5.6 The Media..............................................................................................................172 5.7 Conclusion................................................................................................................173 Chapter Six......................................................................................................................175 Shaikh Al Bur’ai and The Ingazh Era: The.....................................................................175 Transformation into a National Figure...........................................................................175 6.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................175 6.2 International Politics: Sufism as Combating Militant Islam...............................177 6.3 The Tamkin Programme......................................................................................178 6.4 Shaikh Al Bur’ai’s Political Life.........................................................................184 6.5 Why the Ingazh Government was tolerant to Shaikh Al Bur’ai?........................186 10