Springer Series in Materials Science Volume 176 Series Editors Robert Hull, Charlottesville, VA, USA Chennupati Jagadish, Canberra, ACT, Australia Richard M. Osgood, New York, NY, USA Jürgen Parisi, Oldenburg, Germany Zhiming M. Wang, Chengdu, P.R. China For furthervolumes: http://www.springer.com/series/856 The Springer Series in Materials Science covers the complete spectrum of mate- rials physics, including fundamental principles, physical properties, materials theory and design. Recognizing the increasing importance of materials science in future device technologies, the book titles in this series reflect the state-of-the-art in understanding and controlling the structure and properties of all important classes of materials. Dmitrij Lyubimov Kirill Dolgopolov • Leonid Pinchuk Micromechanisms of Friction and Wear Introduction to Relativistic Tribology 123 Dmitrij Lyubimov LeonidPinchuk Kirill Dolgopolov National Academyof Sciencesof Belarus Department of AntifrictionalMaterials Metal-Polymer Research Institute South-Russian State University Gomel Shahty Belarus Russia ISSN 0933-033X ISBN 978-3-642-35147-1 ISBN 978-3-642-35148-8 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-35148-8 SpringerHeidelbergNewYorkDordrechtLondon LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2012954058 (cid:2)Springer-VerlagBerlinHeidelberg2013 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsarereservedbythePublisher,whetherthewholeorpartof the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,broadcasting,reproductiononmicrofilmsorinanyotherphysicalway,andtransmissionor informationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilarordissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. 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Printedonacid-freepaper SpringerispartofSpringerScience?BusinessMedia(www.springer.com) Preface «…allsciencesbecomemathematicalbynatureaslongastheyimprove» N.Whitehead,EnglishMathematicianandPhilosopher «…during the last 5 years, the relations between individual sciences and betweenscienceandtechnologyhavechanged.Thegrowingawareness and effectiveness of scientific methods has enabled fruitful application of onesciencetoanotherscience…Meanwhile,theengineeringscienceshave become so complicated that the empirical methods alone have become helpless.Inshort,thesciencehasbecomebothfeasibleandmandatoryto useintheengineering.Thedifferencebetweenaspirationsstillremainsand frequently happens to be decisive, while methods and challenges are growingmoreandmoresimilar» G.Smith,AmericanMathematician «Thefrictionphenomenaattractboththephysicistandtheengineeralike; their studies relate to the hardest sphere of the physical boundary-value problems» W.Hardy,BritishTribologist The progress of engineering and technology stimulated the ideas offriction from the simplest mechanistic views of Leonardo da Vinci and Charles-Augustin de Coulomb to the modern tribophysical viewpoint considering the friction as the superpositionofadhesiveandcohesiveforces.Itpresumesthatfrictionbelongsto thecategoryof‘‘nanotheories’’,thoughnowwearemoreaccustomedtousingthe terms ‘‘microlevel’’, ‘‘micromechanisms’’, etc. Unfortunately,thedevelopmentofmodelsdescribingtheprocessoffrictionand wear using the ideas of the matter electron molecular structure confronts if not principal then considerable challenges. The fact can be related to them that the matter structure changes during friction at the microlevel which is hard to trace and, therefore, hard to study. The structure of the substance exposed to friction is in the dynamically mobile variable state having the properties hard to assess or predict. v vi Preface Theempiricaldescriptiveapproachprevailsinthemosttheoreticaltribological works without using comprehensively the modern physical apparatus. A. S. Akhmatov authored the outstanding book ‘‘Molecular Physics of Boundary Friction’’;itisexceptionalbookconfirmingtherule.Theauthormanifeststhatthe achievements of the modern physics of solids permit to approach close to at least the correct physical description of the microprocesses governing the tribounit macrocharacteristcs, like the wear rate and the friction coefficient. A. I. Sviride- nok,theBelarusiantribologist,believesthat‘‘alltriboeffectsdisplaythemselvesat the macroscale, while the phenomena causing and accompanying them evolve at the microlevel’’. Theauthorsendeavortodescribeinthepresentpapertheoreticallycorrectlythe transformationsthefrictionforcesinduceinthesubstancestructureusingtheideas and the apparatus of crystal physics, the solid body quantum and the chemical bonding theories. When writing, the authors were surprised to discover that the book was structured so that it resembled the above-mentioned book of A. S. Akhmatov.Thepresentbookcontinues,insomeaspects,themonograph‘‘Modern Tribology’’ published earlier. We describe it in much more detail the micropro- cesses in which Professor D. N. Garkunov shared when reviewing the preceding works. The detailed elaboration and more profound revision of the material nar- rowed the framework of the problems elucidated omitting a variety of the appealing problems from the study while they are worthwhile to be described separately. The book highlights, in the first place, the transformations evolving in the crystalline lattice in friction, how these transformations influence the appearance of overactive state capable to become reactive states and some little-known phe- nomena affecting the friction characteristics. The findings in recent decades expandedsubstantiallythetribologicalknowledgewhichrelatesinthisoranother way to the application of relativistic ideas based on the theory of relativity approaches to the friction physics study. The discovery by B. V. Deryagin and colleaguesofthemechanicemissionelectronsandX-rayphotonsfromthefriction surface served the experimental basis; A. L. Zharin, Belarusian tribologist, dis- coveredthedependenceoftheelectronworkfromthesurfaceofmetallicpartson theextentoffrictiondeformationofsurfacelayers;thediscoverybythephysicists of the school of B. V. Deryagin of the ability of free surfaces of solids to emit heavy particles infriction,etc. The authors of the present bookhave attemptedto adapt the ideas of the relativistic mechanics to the description of tribophysical phenomena. The paper provides physical grounds to validate new models and mechanisms oftriboprocesses.Theyservedasthephysicalgroundsforthetribologicalconcept which the authors adhere. The concept implies development of the model of mechanisms of appearance of the third body as the most essential factor of evo- lution which governs the main tribosystem behavior features. The reader of this book will need certain knowledge of the solid body physics, electrodynamics, continuumphysics,andquantummechanics.Itisintendedforthepreparedreader for whom the contents may be appealing. Preface vii The contents of the present monograph are at the borderline between different trends of natural and engineering sciences, like electrodynamics, the theory of relativity, the quantum mechanics, the solid body and the surface physics, the physical and chemical kinetics, and others. Each of the above-listed sections containsalongestablishedsystemofcommondesignations,constants,andvalues. These designations coincide sometimes. For instance, one and the same symbol ‘‘S’’ designates the fundamental values, such as ‘‘action’’ in the mechanics, ‘‘entropy’’inthethermodynamics,‘‘spin’’inthequantumtheory,‘‘Umov-Pointing vector’’ in the electrodynamics, and others.This symbolic designationis so much common that any effort to change it can cause confusion in the perception of formulas like the use of similar symbols can be misleading. Therefore, the for- mulas are deciphered the way they are written in the text; in addition, the book containsattheendthelistofmaindesignationsincludedintotheformulasineach chapter. With sincere respect to our readers who open this book for the first time, Shahty, Russia Dmitrij Lyubimov Kirill Dolgopolov Gomel, Belarus Leonid Pinchuk Contents 1 Interaction Between Atoms in the Substance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1 Van der Waals Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.2 Quantum Mechanical Description of Atom Interactions . . . . . . . 5 1.3 Strong Chemical Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.3.1 Ion Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.3.2 Covalent Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1.3.3 Metallic Bonds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 1.3.4 Hydrogen and Resonance Bonds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 1.4 Collective Interaction Between Atoms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 1.5 Crystallization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 1.6 Crystalline Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 1.7 Electronic Structure of Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 1.8 Interaction Between Molecular Chains. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 2 Crystalline Materials: Surfaces of Solid Bodies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 2.1 Defects of Crystalline Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 2.2 Polycrystals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 2.3 Solid Body Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 2.4 Phase Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 3 Dynamic Microprocesses in Solid Bodies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 3.1 Elastic Waves in Crystals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 3.2 Quantum Crystalline Lattice Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 3.3 Diffusion in Crystals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 3.4 Motions of Dislocations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 3.5 Dependence of the Crystalline Lattice Parameters on Dynamic Factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 ix x Contents 4 Friction Microdynamics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 4.1 Friction Effect on Solid Body Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 4.2 Diffusive Triboprocesses in Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 4.3 Motion of Dislocations in Friction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 4.4 Relativistic Effects in Friction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 5 Plasma Triboprocesses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 5.1 Mechanoactivation of Surfaces of Tribocouples. . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 5.2 Triboplasma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 5.3 Wave Processes in Triboplasma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 5.4 Effect of External Electromagnetic Fields on Triboplasma. . . . . 150 5.5 The Experimental Methods of Triboplasma Study. . . . . . . . . . . 155 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 6 Wave Tribochemistry of Post-Plasma States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 6.1 Interaction Between Triboplasma with Tribosurface. . . . . . . . . . 166 6.2 Post-Plasmatic States and Wave Processes Due Tribochemical Synthesis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 6.3 Apparatus of Wave Mechanics for Description of Tribocouple Micromechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 7 Antifriction Micromechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 7.1 Lubricating Layer Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 7.2 Chemical Interaction in Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 7.3 Complex Compound of Tribomaterials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 7.4 Tribocoordination or Surfing Effect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 7.5 Additives Based on Complex Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Afterword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Chapter 1 Interaction Between Atoms in the Substance “Eachsciencediscoversthethingswhicharefarbeyondthe immediateobservation”, Ch.Kittel,Americanphilosopher “Infact,thephysicsofsolidsreducestotheestablishmentof relationsbetweenthebehaviorofindividualatomsand moleculestheymanifestwhentheatomsandmoleculescombine intohugeassociationslikeregularlyorderedcrystals” Ch.Kittel,Americanphilosopher “Fromtheviewpointofthephysicalprinciples,themost interestingphenomenaoccurinthenewspotswheretherules arenotsuitableorwheretheyareineffective”, RichardPhillipsFeynman,Americanphysicist Abstract The basic models of atoms and molecular electromagnetic interaction in solids are presented. Generally accepted systematization of chemical bonds as well as fundamentals of nucleation centre model is exhibited. The basic notions aboutstructureofidealcrystalsandpolymersareadduced.Computationmodelsof molecularchainsinteractionareexamined. It can be asserted with certainty that the transition from the purely mechanistic ideasaboutthephysicalprocessesoffrictioninteractionsbetweensolidstotheatom andmolecularinteractionshasbeencompletedsofar.Theforcesactingtheoretically betweenthecontactingsolidsincludealltypesofinteractions;theyincludethecohe- sionbetweensolids:metallic,covalent,ionbondswhichareshort-termforces,the VanderWaalsbondsrelatingtotheworkofactingforces. Letusrecallthemainnotionscomeacrossinthetheoryoftheabove-mentioned interactions which we will address when describing the processes accompanying friction.Itwillhelpunderstandbetterthesubsequentchapters. D.Lyubimovetal.,MicromechanismsofFrictionandWear, 1 SpringerSeriesinMaterialsScience176,DOI:10.1007/978-3-642-35148-8_1, ©Springer-VerlagBerlinHeidelberg2013