Table Of Content

THE OXFORD SERIES IN ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING Adel S. Sedra, Series Editor Allen and Holberg, CMOS Analog Circuit Design, 2nd Edition Bobrow, Elementary Linear Circuit Analysis, 2nd Edition Bobrow, Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering, 2nd Edition Burns and Roberts, An Introduction to Mixed-Signal IC Test and Measurement Campbell, The Science and Engineering of Microelectronic Fabrication, 2nd Edition Chen, Digital Signal Processing Chen, Linear System Theory and Design, 3rd Edition Chen, Signals and Systems, 3rd Edition Comer, Digital Logic and State Machine Design, 3rd Edition Comer, Microprocessor-based System Design Cooper and McGillem, Probabilistic Methods of Signal and System Analysis, 3rd Edition DeCarlo and Lin, Linear Circuit Analysis, 2nd Edition Dimitrijev, Understanding Semiconductor Devices Fortney, Principles of Electronics: Analog & Digital Franco, Electric Circuits Fundamentals Ghausi, Electronic Devices and Circuits: Discrete and Integrated Guru and Hiziroglu, Electric Machinery and Transformers, 3rd Edition Houts, Signal Analysis in Linear Systems Jones, Introduction to Optical Fiber Communication Systems Krein, Elements of Power Electronics Kuo, Digital Control Systems, 3rd Edition Lathi, Linear Systems and Signals, 2nd Edition Lathi, Modern Digital and Analog Communications Systems, 3rd Edition Lathi, Signal Processing and Linear Systems Martin, Digital Integrated Circuit Design Miner, Lines and Electromagnetic Fields for Engineers Parhami, Computer Arithmetic Roberts and Sedra, SPICE, 2nd Edition Roulston, An Introduction to the Physics of Semiconductor Devices Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics, 3rd Edition Santina, Stubbemd, and Hostetter, Digital Control System Design, 2nd Edition Sarma, Introduction to Electrical Engineering Schaumann and Van Valkenburg, Design of Analog Filters Schwarz and Oldham, Electrical Engineering: An Introduction, 2nd Edition Sedra and Smith, Microelectronic Circuits, 5th Edition Stefani, Savant, Shahian, and Hostetter, Design of Feedback Control Systems, 4th Edition Tsividis, Operation and Modeling of the MOS Transistor, 2nd Edition Van Valkenburg, Analog Filter Design Warner and Grung, Semiconductor Device Electronics Wolovich, Automatic Control Systems Yariv, Optical Electronics in Modern Communications, 5th Edition Zak, Systems and Control H EDITION MICROELECTRONIC CIRCUITS Adel S. Sedra University of Waterloo Kenneth C. Smith University of Toronto .JÈIÊIÈIÊM 'V: : New York Oxford OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 2004 Oxford University Press Oxford New York Auckland Bangkok Buenos Aires Cape Town Chennai Dar es Salaam Delhi Hong Kong Istanbul Karachi Kolkata Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Mumbai Nairobi São Paulo Shanghai Taipei Tokyo Toronto Copyright © 1982, 1987, 1991, 1998, 2004 by Oxford University Press, Inc. Published by Oxford University Press, Inc. 198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016 www.oup.com Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-514252-7 Cover Illustration: The chip shown is an inside view of a mass-produced surface-micromachined gyroscope sys- tem, integrated on a 3mm by 3mm die, and using a standard 3-m 2-V BiCMOS process suited for the harsh auto- motive environment. This first single-chip gyroscopic sensor, in which micro-mechanical and electronic components are intimately entwined on the same chip, provides unprecedented performance through the use of a collection of precision-directed techniques, including emphasis on differential operation (both mechanically and electronically) bolstered by trimmable thin-film resistive components. This tiny, robust, low-power, angular-rate- to-voltage transducer, having a sensitivity of 12.5mV/7s and resolution of 0.0157s (or 507hour) has a myriad of applications—including automotive skid control and rollover detection, dead reckoning for GPS backup and robot motion control, and camera-field stabilization. The complete gyroscope package, weighing 1/3 gram with a vol- ume of 1/6 cubic centimeter, uses 30mW from a 5-V supply. Source: John A. Geen, Steven J. Sherman, John F. Chang, Stephen R. Lewis; Single-chip surface micromachined integrated Gyroscope with 50°/h Allan deviation, IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits, vol. 37, pp. 1860-1866, December 2002. (Originally presented at ISSCC 2002.) Photographed by John Chang, provided by John Geen, both of Analog Devices, Micromachine Products Division, Cambridge, MA, USA. Printing number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper P R E F A C E xxiii PART I DEVICES AND BASIC CIRCUITS 2 1 Introduction to Electronics 5 2 Operational Amplifiers 63 3 Diodes 139 4 MOS Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFETs) 235 5 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs) 377 ANALOG AND DIGITAL INTEGRATED PART II CIRCUITS 542 6 Single-Stage Integrated-Circuit Amplifiers 545 7 Differential and Multistage Amplifiers 687 8 Feedback 791 9 Operational-Amplifier and Data-Converter Circuits 871 10 Digital CMOS Logic Circuits 949 PART III SELECTED TOPICS 1010 11 Memory and Advanced Digital Circuits 1013 12 Filters and Tuned Amplifiers 1083 13 Signal Generators and Waveform-Shaping Circuits 1165 14 Output Stages and Power Amplifiers 1229 A P P E N D I X E S A VLSI Fabrication Technology A-1 B Two-Port Network Parameters B-1 C Some Useful Network Theorems C-1 D Single-Time-Constant Circuits D-1 E s-Domain Analysis: Poles, Zeros, and Bode Plots E-1 F Bibliography F-1 G Standard Resistance Values and Unit Prefixes G-1 H Answers to Selected Problems H-1 I N D E X IN-1 P R E F A C E xxiii P A R T I DEVICES AND BASIC CIRCUITS 2 1 Introduction to Electronics 5 Introduction 5 1.1 Signals 6 1.2 Frequency Spectrum of Signals 7 1.3 Analog and Digital Signals 10 1.4 Amplifiers 13 1.4.1 Signal Amplification 13 1.4.2 Amplifier Circuit Symbol W 1.4.3 Voltage Gain 14 1.4.4 Power Gain and Current Gain 15 1.4.5 Expressing Gain in Decibels 15 1.4.6 The Amplifier Power Supplies 16 1.4.7 Amplifier Saturation 18 1.4.8 Nonlinear Transfer Characteristics and Biasing 19 1.4.9 Symbol Convention 22 1.5 Circuit Models for Amplifiers 23 1.5.1 Voltage Amplifiers 23 1.5.2 Cascaded Amplifiers 25 1.5.3 Other Amplifier Types 2 7 1.5.4 Relationships Between the Four Amplifier Models 27 1.6 Frequency Response of Amplifiers 31 1.6.1 Measuring the Amplifier Frequency Response 31 1.6.2 Amplifier Bandwidth 32 1.6.3 Evaluating the Frequency Response of Amplifiers 33 1.6.4 Single-Time-Constant Networks 33 1.6.5 Classification of Amplifiers Based on Frequency Response 38 1.7 Digital Logic Inverters 40 1.7.1 Function of the Inverter 40 1.7.2 The Voltage Transfer Characteristic (VTC) 41 1.7.3 Noise Margins 42 1.7.4 The Ideal VTC 43 1.7.5 Inverter Implementation 43 1.7.6 Power Dissipation 45 1.7.7 Propagation Delay 46 1.8 Circuit Simulation Using SPICE 49 Summary 50 Problems 51 DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS v i l 2 Operational Amplifiers 63 Introduction 63 2.1 The Ideal Op A m p 64 2.1.1 The Op-Amp Terminals 64 2.1.2 Function and Characteristics of the Ideal Op Amp 65 2.1.3 Differential and Common-Mode Signals 67 2.2 The Inverting Configuration 68 2.2.1 The Closed-Loop Gain 69 2.2.2 Effect of Finite Open-Loop Gain 71 2.2.3 Input arid Output Resistances 72 2.2.4 An Important Application—The Weighted Summer 75 2.3 The Noninverting Configuration 7 7 2.3.1 The Closed-Loop Gain 77 2.3.2 Characteristics of the Noninverting Configuration 78 2.3.3 Effect of Finite Open-Loop Gain 78 2.3.4 The Voltage Follower 79 2.4 Difference Amplifiers 81 2.4.1 A Single Op-Amp Difference Amplifier 82 2.4.2 A Superior Circuit—The Instrumentation Amplifier 85 2.5 Effect of Finite Open-Loop Gain and Bandwidth on Circuit Performance 89 2.5.1 Frequency Dependence of the Open-Loop Gain 89 2.5.2 Frequency Response of Closed-Loop Amplifiers 91 2.6 Large-Signal Operation of Op Amps 94 2.6.1 Output Voltage Saturation 94 2.6.2 Output Current Limits 94 2.6.3 Slew Rate 95 2.6.4 Full-Power Bandwidth 97 2.7 D C Imperfections 98 2.7.1 Offset Voltage 98 2.7.2 Input Bias and Offset Currents 102 2.8 Integrators and Differentiators 105 2.8.1 The Inverting Configuration with General Impedances 105 2.8.2 The Inverting Integrator 107 2.8.3 The Op-Amp Differentiator 112 2.9 The SPICE Op-Amp Model and Simulation Examples 114 2.9.1 Linear Macromodel 115 2.9.2 Nonlinear Macromodel 119 Summary 122 Problems 123 3 Diodes 139 Introduction 139 3.1 The Ideal Diode 140 3.1.1 Current-Voltage Characteristic 140 3.1.2 A Simple Application: The Rectifier 141 3.1.3 Another Application: Diode Logic Gates 144 V i i i ! DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS 4 MOS Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFETs) 235 Introduction 235 4.1 Device Structure and Physical Operation 236 4.1.1 Device Structure 236 4.1.2 Operation with No Gate Voltage 238 4.1.3 Creating a Channel for Current Flow 238 4.1.4 Applying a Small vDS 239 4.1.5 Operation as vDS Is Increased 241 4.1.6 Derivation of the iD-vDS Relationship 243 4.1.7 The p-Channel MOSFET 247 4.1.8 Complementary MOS or CMOS 247 4.1.9 Operating the MOS Transistor in the Subthreshold Region 248 4.2 Current-Voltage Characteristics 248 4.2.1 Circuit Symbol 248 4.2.2 The iD-vDS Characteristics 249 4.2.3 Finite Output Resistance in Saturation 253 4.2.4 Characteristics of the p-Channel MOSFET 256 4.2.5 The Role of the Substrate—The Body Effect 258 4.2.6 Temperature Effects 259 4.2.7 Breakdown and Input Protection 259 4.2.8 Summary 260 4.3 M O S F E T Circuits at D C 262 4.4 The M O S F E T as an Amplifier and as a Switch 270 4.4.1 Large-Signal Operation—The Transfer Characteristic 271 4.4.2 Graphical Derivation of the Transfer Characteristic 273 4.4.3 Operation as a Switch 274 4.4.4 Operation as a Linear Amplifier 274 4.4.5 Analytical Expressions for the Transfer Characteristic 275 4.4.6 A Final Remark on Biasing 280 4.5 Biasing in M O S Amplifier Circuits 280 4.5.1 Biasing by Fixing VGS 280 4.5.2 Biasing by Fixing VG and Connecting a Resistance in the Source 281 4.5.3 Biasing. Using a Drain-to-Gate Feedback Resistor 284 4.5.4 Biasing Using a Constant-Current Source 285 4.5.5 A Final Remark 287 4.6 Small-Signal Operation and Models 287 4.6.1 The DC Bias Point 287 4.6.2 The Signal Current in the Drain Terminal 288 4.6.3 The Voltage Gain 289 4.6.4 Separating the DC Analysis and the Signal Analysis 290 4.6.5 Small-Signal Equivalent-Circuit Models 290 4.6.6 The Transconductance gm 292 4.6.7 The T Equivalent-Circuit Model 295 4.6.8 Modeling the Body Effect 296 4.6.9 Summary 297 4.7 Single-Stage M O S Amplifiers 299 4.1.1 The Basic Structure 299 4.7.2 Characterizing Amplifiers 301 4.7.3 The Common-Source (CS) Amplifier 306 4.7.4 The Common-Source Amplifier with a Source Resistance 309 3.2 Terminal Characteristics of Junction Diodes 147 3.2.1 The Forward-Bias Region 148 3.2.2 The Reverse-Bias Region 152 3.2.3 The Breakdown Region 152 3.3 Modeling the Diode Forward Characteristic 153 3.3.1 The Exponential Model 153 3.3.2 Graphical Analysis Using the Exponential Model 154 3.3.3 Iterative Analysis Using the Exponential Model 154 3.3.4 The Need for Rapid Analysis 155 3.3.5 The Piecewise-Linear Model 755 3.3.6 The Constant-Voltage-Drop Model 157 3.3.7 The Ideal-Diode Model 158 3.3.8 The Small-Signal Model 159 3.3.9 Use of the Diode Forward Drop in Voltage Regulation 163 3.3.10 Summary 165 3.4 Operation in the Reverse Breakdown Region— Zener Diodes 167 3.4.1 Specifying and Modeling the Zener Diode 167 3.4.2 Use of the Zener as a Shunt Regulator 168 3.4.3 Temperature Effects 170 3.4.4 A Final Remark 171 3.5 Rectifier Circuits 171 3.5.1 The Half-Wave Rectifier 172 3.5.2 The Full-Wave Rectifier 174 3.5.3 The Bridge Rectifier 176 3.5.4 The Rectifier with a Filter Capacitor— The Peak Rectifier 177 3.5.5 Precision Half-Wave Rectifier— The Super Diode 183 3.6 Limiting and Clamping Circuits 184 3.6.1 Limiter Circuits 184 3.6.2 The Clamped Capacitor or DC Restorer 187 3.6.3 The Voltage Doubler 189 3.7 Physical Operation of Diodes 190 3.7.1 Basic Semiconductor Concepts 190 3.7.2 Thepn Junction Under Open-Circuit Conditions 196 3.7.3 The pn Junction Under Reverse-Bias Conditions 199 3.7.4 T h e J u n c t i o n in the Breakdown Region 203 3.7.5 The pn Junction Under Forward-Bias Conditions 204 3.7.6 Summary 208 3.8 Special Diode Types 209 3.8.1 The Schottky-Barrier Diode (SBD) 210 3.8.2 Varactors 210 3.8.3 Photodiodes 210 3.8.4 Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs) 211 3.9 The SPICE Diode Model and Simulation Examples 212 3.9.1 The Diode Model 212 3.9.2 The Zener Diode Model 213 Summary 217 Problems 218 X : . DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS 5.5 Biasing in BJT Amplifier Circuits 436 5.5.1 The Classical Discrete-Circuit Bias Arrangement 436 5.5.2 A Two-Power-Supply Version of the Classical Bias Arrangement 440 5.5.3 Biasing Using a Collector-to-Base Feedback Resistor 441 5.5.4 Biasing Using a Constant-Current Source 442 5.6 Small-Signal Operation and Models 443 5.6.1 The Collector Current and the Transconductance 443 5.6.2 The Base Current and the Input Resistance at the Base 445 5.6.3 The Emitter Current and the Input Resistance at the Emitter 446 5.6.4 Voltage Gain 447 5.6.5 Separating the Signal and the DC Quantities 448 5.6.6 The Hybrid-;? Model 448 5.6.7 The T Model 449 5.6.8 Application of the Small-Signal Equivalent Circuits 450 5.6.9 Performing Small-Signal Analysis Directly on the Circuit Diagram 457 5.6.10 Augmenting the Small-Signal Models to Account for the Early Effect 457 5.6.11 Summary 458 5.7 Single-Stage BJT Amplifiers 460 5.7.1 The Basic Structure 460 5.7.2 Characterizing BJT Amplifiers 461 5.7.3 The Common-Emitter (CE) Amplifier 467 5.7.4 The Common-Emitter Amplifier with an Emitter Resistance 470 5.7.5 The Common-Base (CB) Amplifier 475 5.7.6 The Common-Collector (CC) Amplifier or Emitter Follower 478 5.7.7 Summary and Comparisons 483 5.8 The BJT Internal Capacitances and High-Frequency Model 485 5.8.1 The Base-Charging or Diffusion Capacitance Cde 486 5.8.2 The Base-Emitter Junction Capacitance Cje 486 5.8.3 The Collector-Base Junction Capacitance C u 487 5.8.4 The High-Frequency Hybrid-^ Model 487 5.8.5 The Cutoff Frequency 487 5.8.6 Summary 490 5.9 Frequency Response of the Common-Emitter Amplifier 491 5.9.1 The Three Frequency Bands 491 5.9.2 The High-Frequency Response 492 5.9.3 The Low-Frequency Response 497 5.9.4 A Final Remark 503 5.10 The Basic BJT Digital Logic Inverter 503 5.10.1 The Voltage Transfer Characteristic 504 5.10.2 Saturated Versus Nonsaturated BJT Digital Circuits 505 5.11 The SPICE BJT Model and Simulation Examples 507 5.11.1 The SPICE Ebers-Moll Model of the BJT 507 5.11.2 The SPICE Gummel-Poon Model of the BJT 509 5.11.3 The SPICE BJT Model Parameters 510 5.11.4 The BJT Model Parameters BF and BR in SPICE 510 4.7.5 The Common-Gate (CG) Amplifier 311 4.7.6 The Common-Drain or Source-Follower Amplifier 315 4.7.7 Summary and Comparisons 318 4.8 The MOSFET Internal Capacitances and High-Frequency Model 320 4.8.1 The Gate Capacitive Effect 321 4.8.2 The Junction Capacitances 322 4.8.3 The High-Frequency MOSFET Model 322 4.8.4 The MOSFET Unity-Gain Frequency (fT) 324 4.8.5 Summary 325 4.9 Frequency Response of the CS Amplifier 326 4.9.1 The Three Frequency Bands 326 4.9.2 The High-Frequency Response 328 4.9.3 The Low-Frequency Response 332 4.9.4 A Final Remark 336 4.10 The C M O S Digital Logic Inverter 336 4.10.1 Circuit Operation 337 4.10.2 The Voltage Transfer Characteristic 339 4.10.3 Dynamic Operation 342 4.10.4 Current Flow and Power Dissipation 345 4.10.5 Summary 346 4.11 The Depletion-Type M O S F E T 346 4.12 The SPICE M O S F E T Model and Simulation Example 351 A.U.I MOSFET Models 351 4.12.2 MOSFET Model Parameters 352 Summary 359 Problems 360 5 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs) 377 Introduction 377 5.1 Device Structure and Physical Operation 378 5.1.1 Simplified Structure and Modes of Operation 378 5.1.2 Operation of the npn Transistor in the Active Mode 380 5.1.3 Structure of Actual Transistors 386 5.1.4 The Ebers-Moll (EM) Model 387 5.1.5 Operation in the Saturation Mode 390 5.1.6 The pnp Transistor 391 5.2 Current-Voltage Characteristics 392 5.2.1 Circuit Symbols and Conventions 392 5.2.2 Graphical Representation of Transistor Characteristics 397 5.2.3 Dependence of i c on the Collector Voltage—The Early Effect 399 5.2.4 The Common-Emitter Characteristics 401 5.2.5 Transistor Breakdown 406 5.2.6 Summary 407 5.3 The BJT as an Amplifier and as a Switch 407 5.3.1 Large-Signal Operation—The Transfer Characteristic 410 5.3.2 Amplifier Gain 412 5.3.3 Graphical Analysis 415 5.3.4 Operation as a Switch 419 5.4 BJT Circuits at DC 421 DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS Summary 516 Problems 5 7 7 ANALOG AND DIGITAL INTEGRATED PART II CIRCUITS 542 6 Single-Stage Integrated-Circuit Amplifiers 545 Introduction 545 6.1 IC Design Philosophy 546 6.2 Comparison of the M O S F E T and the BJT 547 6.2.1 Typical Values of MOSFET Parameters 547 6.2.2 Typical Values of IC BJT Parameters 548 6.2.3 Comparison of Important Characteristics 550 6.2.4 Combining MOS and Bipolar Transistors—BiCMOS Circuits 567 6.2.5 Validity of the Square-Law MOSFET Model 562 6.3 IC Biasing—Current Sources, Current Mirrors, and Current-Steering Circuits 562 6.3.1 The Basic MOSFET Current Source 562 6.3.2 MOS Current-Steering Circuits 565 6.3.3 BJT Circuits '567 6.4 High-Frequency Response—General Considerations 571 6.4.1 The High-Frequency Gain Function 572 6.4.2 Determining the 3-dB Frequency fH 573 6.4.3 Using Open-Circuit Time Constants for the Approximate Determination offH 575 6.4.4 Miller's Theorem 578 6.5 The Common-Source and Common-Emitter Amplifiers with Active Loads 582 6.5.1 The Common-Source Circuit 582 6.5.2 CMOS Implementation of the Common-Source Amplifier 583 6.5.3 The Common-Emitter Circuit 588 6.6 High-Frequency Response of the CS and CE Amplifiers 588 6.6.1 Analysis Using Miller's Theorem 589 6.6.2 Analysis Using Open-Circuit Time Constants 590 6.6.3 Exact Analysis 597 6.6.4 Adapting the Formulas for the Case of the CE Amplifier 595 6.6.5 The Situation When Rsig Is Low 597 6.7 The Common-Gate and Common-Base Amplifiers with Active Loads 600 6.7.1 The Common-Gate Amplifier 600 6.7.2 The Common-Base Amplifier 610 6.7.3 A Concluding Remark 613 6.8 The Cascode Amplifier 613 6.8.1 The MOS Cascode 614 6.8.2 Frequency Response of the MOS Cascode 618 6.8.3 The BJT Cascode 623 6.8.4 A Cascode Current Source 625 6.8.5 Double Cascoding 626 6.8.6 The Folded Cascode 627 6.8.7 BiCMOS Cascodes 628 DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS . „.. x i i i 7 Differential and Multistage Amplifiers 687 Introduction 687 7.1 T h e M O S Differential Pair 688 7.1.1 Operation with a Common-Mode Input Voltage 689 7.1.2 Operation with a Differential Input Voltage 697 7.1.3 Large-Signal Operation 693 7.2 Small-Signal Operation of the M O S Differential Pair 696 7.2.1 Differential Gain 697 7.2.2 Common-Mode Gain and Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) 700 7.3 The BJT Differential Pair 704 7.3.1 Basic Operation 704 7.3.2 Large-Signal Operation 707 7.3.3 Small-Signal Operation 709 7.4 Other Nonideal Characteristics of the Differential Amplifier 720 7.4. l' Input Offset Voltage of the MOS Differential Pair 720 7.4.2 Input Offset Voltage of the Bipolar Differential Pair 723 7.4.3 Input Bias and Offset Currents of the Bipolar Pair 725 1AA Input Common-Mode Range 726 7.4.5 A Concluding Remark 726 7.5 The Differential Amplifier with Active Load 727 7.5.1 Differential-to-Single-Ended Conversion 727 • 7.5.2 The Active-Loaded MOS Differential Pair 728 7.5.3 Differential Gain of the Active-Loaded MOS Pair 729 7.5.4 Common-Mode Gain and CMRR 732 7.5.5 The Bipolar Differential Pair with Active Load 733 6.9 The CS and C E Amplifiers with Source (Emitter) Degeneration 629 6.9.1 The CS Amplifier with a Source Resistance 629 6.9.2 The CE Amplifier with an Emitter Resistance 633 6.10 The Source and Emitter Followers 635 6.10.1 The Source Follower 635 6.10.2 Frequency Response of the Source Follower 637 6.10.3 The Emitter Follower 639 6.11 Some Useful Transistor Pairings 641 6.11.1 The CD-CS, CC-CE and CD-CE Configurations 641 6.11.2 The Darlington Configuration 645 6.11.3 The CC-CB and CD-CG Configurations 646 6.12 Current-Mirror Circuits with Improved Performance 649 6.12.1 Cascode MOS Mirrors 649 6.12.2 A Bipolar Mirror with Base-Current Compensation 650 6.12.3 The Wilson Current Mirror 657 6.12.4 The Wilson MOS Mirror 652 6.12.5 The Widlar Current Source 653 6.13 SPICE Simulation Examples 656 Summary 665 Problems 666 X l v DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS W 8.10 Stability Study Using Bode Plots 845 8.10.1 Gain and Phase Margins 845 8.10.2 Effect of Phase Margin on Closed-Loop Response 846 8.10.3 An Alternative Approach for Investigating Stability 847 8.11 Frequency Compensation 849 8.11.1 Theory 850 8.11.2 Implementation 851 8.11.3 Miller Compensation and Pole Splitting 852 8.12 SPICE Simulation Example 855 Summary 859 Problems 860 9 Operational-Amplifier and Data-Converter Circuits 871 Introduction 871 9.1 The Two-Stage C M O S Op A m p 872 9.1.1 The Circuit 872 9.1.2 Input Common-Mode Range and Output Swing 873 i 9.1.3 Voltage Gain 874 9.1.4 Frequency Response 876 9.1.5 Slew Rate 879 9.2 The Folded-Cascode C M O S Op A m p 883 9.2.1 The Circuit 883 9.2.2 Input Common-Mode Range and the Output Voltage Swing 885 9.2.3 Voltage Gain 886 9.2.4 Frequency Response 888 9.2.5 Slew Rate 888 9.2.6 Increasing the Input Common-Mode Range: Rail-to-Rail Input Operation 890 9.2.7 Increasing the Output Voltage Range: The Wide-Swing Current Mirror 892 9.3 The 741 Op-Amp Circuit 893 9.3.1 Bias Circuit 893 9.3.2 Short-Circuit Protection Circuitry 895 9.3.3 The Input Stage 895 9.3.4 The Second Stage 895 9.3.5 The Output Stage 896 9.3.6 Device Parameters 898 9.4 D C Analysis of the 741 899 9.4.1 Reference Bias Current 899 9.4.2 Input-Stage Bias 899 9.4.3 Input Bias and Offset Currents 902 9.4.4 Input Offset Voltage 902 9.4.5 Input Common-Mode Range 902 9.4.6 Second-Stage Bias 902 9.4.7 Output-Stage Bias 903 9.4.8 Summary 904 9.5 Small-Signal Analysis of the 741 905 9.5.1 The Input Stage 905 9.5.2 The Second Stage 910 9.5.3 The Output Stage 912 7.6 Frequency Response of the Differential Amplifier 740 7.6.1 Analysis of the Resistively Loaded MOS Amplifier 740 7.6.2 Analysis of the Active-Loaded MOS Amplifier 744 7.7 Multistage Amplifiers 749 1.1.1 A Two-Stage CMOS Op Amp 749 1.1.2 A Bipolar Op Amp 758 7.8 SPICE Simulation Example 767 Summary 773 Problems 775 8 Feedback 791 Introduction 791 8.1 The General Feedback Structure 792 8.2 Some Properties of Negative Feedback 795 8.2.1 Gain Desensitivity 795 8.2.2 Bandwidth Extension 795 8.2.3 Noise Reduction 796 8.2.4 Reduction in Nonlinear Distortion 797 8.3 The Four Basic Feedback Topologies 798 8.3.1 Voltage Amplifiers 799 8.3.2 Current Amplifiers 799 8.3.3 Transconductance Amplifiers 801 8.3.4 Transresistance Amplifiers 802 8.4 The Series-Shunt Feedback Amplifier 802 8.4.1 The Ideal Situation 802 8.4.2 The Practical Situation 804 8.4.3 Summary 807 8.5 The Series-Series Feedback Amplifier 811 8.5.1 The Ideal Case 811 8.5.2 The Practical Case 812 8.5.3 Summary 814 8.6 The Shunt-Shunt and Shunt-Series Feedback Amplifiers 818 8.6.1 The Shunt-Shunt Configuration 819 8.6.2 An Important Note 823 8.6.3 The Shunt-Series Configuration 823 8.6.4 Summary of Results 831 8.7 Determining the Loop Gain 831 8.7.1 An Alternative Approach for Finding A/5 831 8.7.2 Equivalence of Circuits from a Feedback-Loop Point of View 833 8.8 The Stability Problem 834 8.8.1 Transfer Function of the Feedback Amplifier 834 8.8.2 The Nyquist Plot 835 8.9 Effect of Feedback on the Amplifier Poles 836 8.9.1 Stability and Pole Location 837 8.9.2 Poles of the Feedback Amplifier 838 8.9.3 Amplifier with Single-Pole Response 838 8.9.4 Amplifier with Two-Pole Response 839 8.9.5 Amplifiers with Three or More Poles 843 x v i DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS 9.6 Gain, Frequency Response, and Slew Rate of the 741 917 9.6.1 Small-Signal Gain 917 9.6.2 Frequency Response 917 9.6.3 A Simplified Model 918 9.6.4 Slew Rate 919 9.6.5 Relationship Between/, and SR 920 9.7 Data Converters—An Introduction 922 9.7.1 Digital Processing of Signals 922 9.7.2 Sampling of Analog Signals 922 9.7.3 Signal Quantization 924 9.1 A The AID and D/A Converters as Functional Blocks 924 9.8 D/A Converter Circuits 925 9.8.1 Basic Circuit Using Binary-Weighted Resistors 925 9.8.2 R-2R Ladders 926 9.8.3 A Practical Circuit Implementation 927 9.8.4 Current Switches 928 9.9 A/D Converter Circuits 929 9.9.1 The Feedback-Type Converter 929 9.9.2 The Dual-Slope A/D Converter 930 9.9.3 The Parallel or Flash Converter 932 9.9.4 The Charge-Redistribution Converter 932 9.10 SPICE Simulation Example 934 Summary 940 Problems 941 10 Digital CMOS Logic Circuits 949 Introduction 949 10.1 Digital Circuit Design: An Overview 950 10.1.1 Digital IC Technologies and Logic-Circuit Families 950 10.1.2 Logic-Circuit Characterization 952 10.1.3 Styles for Digital System Design 954 10.1.4 Design Abstraction and Computer Aids 955 10.2 Design and Performance Analysis of the C M O S Inverter 955 10.2.1 Circuit Structure 955 10.2.2 Static Operation 956 10.2.3 Dynamic Operation 958 10.2.4 Dynamic Power Dissipation 961 10.3 C M O S Logic-Gate Circuits 963 10.3.1 Basic Structure 963 10.3.2 The Two-Input NOR Gate 966 10.3.3 The Two-Input NAND Gate 966 10.3.4 A Complex Gate 967 10.3.5 Obtaining the PUN from the PDN and Vice Versa 968 10.3.6 The Exclusive-OR Function 969 10.3.7 Summary of the Synthesis Method 970 10.3.8 Transistor Sizing 970 10.3.9 Effects of Fan-In and Fan-Out on Propagation Delay 973 10.4 Pseudo-NMOS Logic Circuits 974 10.4.1 The Pseudo-NMOS Inverter 974 10.4.2 Static Characteristics 975 DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS ' ' x v i i 10.4.3 Derivation of the VTC 976 10.4.4 Dynamic Operation 979 10.4.5 Design 979 10.4.6 Gate Circuits 980 10.4.7 Concluding Remarks 9S0 10.5 Pass-Transistor Logic Circuits 982 10.5.1 An Essential Design Requirement 983 10.5.2 Operation with NMOS Transistors as Switches 984 10.5.3 The Use of CMOS Transmission Gates as Switches 988 10.5.4 Pass-Transistor Logic Circuit Examples 990 10.5.5 A Final Remark 991 10.6 Dynamic Logic Circuits 991 10.6.1 Basic Principle 992 10.6.2 Nonideal Effects 993 10.6.3 Domino CMOS Logic 996 10.6.4 Concluding Remarks 998 10.7 Spice Simulation Example 998 Summary 1002 Problems 1002 PART 111 SELECTED TOPICS 1010 11 Memory and Advanced Digital Circuits 1013 Introduction 1013 11.1 Latches and Flip-flops 1014 11.1.1 The Latch 1014 11.1.2 The SR Flip-Flop 1015 11.1.3 CMOS Implementation of SR Flip-Flops 1016 11.1.4 A Simpler CMOS Implementation of the Clocked SR Flip- Flop 1019 11.1.5 D Flip-Flop Circuits 1019 11.2 Multivibrator Circuits 1021 11.2.1 A CMOS Monostable Circuit 1022 11.2.2 An Astable Circuit 1026 11.2.3 The Ring Ospillator 1027 11.3 Semiconductor Memories: Types and Architectures 1028 11.3.1 Memory-Chip Organization 1028 11.3.2 Memory-Chip Timing 1030 11.4 Random-Access Memory (RAM) Cells 1031 11.4.1 Static Memory Cell 1031 11.4.2 Dynamic Memory Cell 1036 11.5 Sense Amplifiers and Address Decoders ~ 1038 11.5.1 The Sense Amplifier 1038 11.5.2 The Row-Address Decoder 1043 11.5.3 The Column-Address Decoder 1045 11.6 Read-Only Memory (ROM) 1046 11.6.1 AMOS ROM 1047 11.6.2 Mask-Programmable ROMs 1049 11.6.3 Programmable ROMs (PROMs and EPROMs) 1049 J DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS 11.7 Emitter-Coupled Logic (ECL) 1052 11.7.1 The Basic Principle 1052 11.7.2 ECL Families 1053 11.7.3 The Basic Gate Circuit 1053 11.7.4 Voltage Transfer Characteristics 1057 11.7.5 Fan-Out 1061 11.7.6 Speed of Operation and Signal Transmission 1062 11.7.7 Power Dissipation 1063 11.7.8 Thermal Effects 1063 11.7.9 The Wired-OR Capability 1066 11.7.10 Some Final Remarks 1066 11.8 BiCMOS Digital Circuits 1067 11.8.1 The BiCMOS Inverter 1067 11.8.2 Dynamic Operation 1069 11.8.3 BiCMOS Logic Gates 1070 11.9 SPICE Simulation Example 1071 Summary 1076 Problems 1077 12 Filters and Tuned Amplifiers 1083 Introduction 1083 12.1 Filter Transmission, Types, and Specification 1084 12.1.1 Filter Transmission 1084 12.1.2 Filter Types 1085 12.1.3 Filter Specification 1085 12.2 The Filter Transfer Function 1088 12.3 Butterworth and Chebyshev Filters 1091 12.3.1 The Butterworth Filter 1091 12.3.2 The Chebyshev Filter 1095 12A First-Order and Second-Order Filter Functions 1098 12.4.1 First-Order Filters 1098 12.4.2 Second-Order Filter Functions 1101 12.5 The Second-Order LCR Resonator 1106 12.5 A The Resonator Natural Modes 1106 12.5.2 Realization of Transmission Zeros 1107 12.5.3 Realization of the Low-Pass Function 1108 12.5.4 Realization of the High-Pass Function 1108 12.5.5 Realization of the Bandpass Function 1108 12.5.6 Realization of the Notch Functions 1110 12.5.7 Realization of the All-Pass Function 1111 12.6 Second-Order Active Filters Based on Inductor Replacement 1112 12.6.1 The Antoniou Inductance-Simulation Circuit 1112 12.6.2 The Op Amp-RC Resonator 1114 12.6.3 Realization of the Various Filter Types 1114 12.6.4 The All-Pass Circuit 1118 12.7 Second-Order Active Filters Based on the Two-Integrator-Loop Topology 1120 12.7.1 Derivation of the Two-Integrator-Loop Biquad 1120 12.1.2 Circuit Implementation 1122 DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS „ . j X 12.7.3 An Alternative Two-Integrator-Loop Biquad Circuit 1123 12.7 A Final Remarks 1125 12.8 Single-Amplifier Biquadratic Active Filters 1125 12.8.1 Synthesis of the Feedback Loop 1126 12.8.2 Injecting the Input Signal 1128 12.8.3 Generation of Equivalent Feedback Loops 1130 12.9 Sensitivity 1133 12.10 Switched-Capacitor Filters 1136 12.10.1 The Basic Principle 1136 12.10.2 Practical Circuits 1137 12.10.3 A Final Remark 1141 12.11 Tuned Amplifiers 1141 12.11.1 The Basic Principle 1141 12.11.2 Inductor Losses 1143 12.11.3 Use of Transformers 1144 12.11.4 Amplifiers with Multiple Tuned Circuits 1145 12.11.5 The Cascode and the CC-CB Cascade 1146 12.11.6 Synchronous Tuning 1147 12.11.7 Stagger-Timing 1148 12.12 SPICE Simulation Examples 1152 Summary 1158 Problems 1159 13 Signal Generators And Waveform-Shaping Circuits 1165 Introduction 1165 13.1 Basic Principles of Sinusoidal Oscillators 1166 13.1.1 The Oscillator Feedback Loop 1166 13.1.2 The Oscillation Criterion 1167 13.1.3 Nonlinear Amplitude Control 1168 13.1 A A Popular Limiter Circuit for Amplitude Control 1169 13.2 Op A m p - R C Oscillator Circuits 1171 13.2.1 The Wien-Bridge Oscillator 1171 13.2.2 The Phase-Shift Oscillator 1174 13.2.3 The Quadrature Oscillator 1176 13.2.4 The Active-Filter-Tuned Oscillator 1177 13.2.5 A Final Remark 1179 13.3 L C and Crystal Oscillators 7779 13.3.1 LC-Tuned Oscillators 7779 13.3.2 Crystal Oscillators 1182 13.4 Bistable Multivibrators 1185 13.4.1 The Feedback Loop 1185 13.4.2 Transfer Characteristics of the Bistable Circuit 1186 13.4.3 Triggering the Bistable Circuit 1187 13 A A The Bistable Circuit as a Memory Element 1188 13.4.5 A Bistable Circuit with Noninverting Transfer ' Characteristics 1188 13.4.6 Application of the Bistable Circuit as a Comparator 1189 13.4.7 Making the Output Levels More Precise 7797 X X ! DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS ^ ; XXI 14.6.3 Power Dissipation Versus Temperature 1250 14.6.4 Transistor Case and Heat Sink 1251 14.6.5 The BJT Safe Operating Area 1254 14.6.6 Parameter Values of Power Transistors 1255 14.7 Variations on the Class A B Configuration 1256 14.7.1 Use of Input Emitter Followers 1256 14.7.2 Use of Compound Devices 1257 14.7.3 Short-Circuit Protection 1259 14.7 A Thermal Shutdown 1260 14.8 IC Power Amplifiers 1261 14.8.1 A Fixed-Gain IC Power Amplifier 1261 14.8.2 Power Op Amps 1265 14.8.3 The Bridge Amplifier 1265 14.9 M O S Power Transistors 1266 14.9.1 Structure of the Power MOSFET 1266 14.9.2 Characteristics of Power MOSFETs 1268 14.9.3 Temperature Effects 1269 14.9.4 Comparison with BJTs 1269 14.9.5 A Class AB Output Stage Utilizing MOSFETs 1270 14.10 SPICE Simulation Example 1271 Summary 1276 Problems 1277 A P P E N D I X E S A VLSI Fabrication Technology A-1 B Two-Port Network Parameters B-1 C Some Useful Network Theorems C-1 D Single-Time-Constant Circuits D-1 E s-Domain Analysis: Poles, Zeros, and Bode Plots E-1 F Bibliography F-1 G Standard Resistance Values and Unit Prefixes G-1 H Answers to Selected Problems H-1 I N D E X IN-1 13.5 Generation of Square and Triangular Waveforms Using Astable Multivibrators 1192 13.5.1 Operation of the Astable Multivibrator 1192 13.5.2 Generation of Triangular Waveforms 1194 13.6 Generation of a Standardized Pulse—The Monostable Multivibrator 1196 13.7 Integrated-Circuit Timers 1198 13.7.1 The 555 Circuit 1198 13.7.2 Implementing a Monostable Multivibrator Using the 555 IC 1199 13.7.3 An Astable Multivibrator Using the 555 IC 1201 13.8 Nonlinear Waveform-Shaping Circuits 1203 13.8.1 The Breakpoint Method 1203 13.8.2 The Nonlinear-Amplification Method 1205 13.9 Precision Rectifier Circuits 1206 13.9.1 Precision Half-Wave Rectifier-The "Superdiode" 1207 13.9.2 An Alternative Circuit 1208 13.9.3 An Application: Measuring AC Voltages 1209 13.9.4 Precision Full-Wave Rectifier 1210 13.9.5 A Precision Bridge Rectifier for Instrumentation Applications 1212 13.9.6 Precision Peak Rectifiers 1213 13.9.7 A Buffered Precision Peak Detector 1213 13.9.8 A Precision Clamping Circuit 1214 13.10 SPICE Simulation Examples 1214 Summary 1219 Problems 1220 14 Output Stages and Power Amplifiers 1229 Introduction 1229 14.1 Classification of Output Stages 1230 14.2 Class A Output Stage 1231 14.2.1 Transfer Characteristic 1231 14.2.2 Signal Waveforms 1233 14.2.3 Power Dissipation 1233 14.2.4 Power-Conversion Efficiency 1235 14.3 Class B Output Stage 1235 14.3.1 Circuit Operation 1236 14.3.2 Transfer Characteristic 1236 14.3.3 Power-Conversion Efficiency 1236 14.3.4 Power Dissipation 1238 14.3.5 Reducing Crossover Distortion 1240 14.3.6 Single-Supply Operation 1240 14.4 Class A B Output Stage 1241 14.4.1 Circuit Operation 1242 14.4.2 Output Resistance 1243 14.5 Biasing the Class AB Circuit 1244 14.5.1 Biasing Using Diodes 1244 14.5.2 Biasing Using the VBE Multiplier 1246 14.6 Power BJTs 1249 14.6.1 Junction Temperature 1249 14.6.2 Thermal Resistance 1249 Microelectronic Circuits, fifth edition, is intended as a text for the core courses in electronic circuits taught to majors in electrical and computer engineering. It should also prove useful to engineers and other professionals wishing to update their knowledge through self-study. As was the case with the first four editions, the objective of this book is to develop in the reader the ability to analyze and design electronic circuits, both analog and digital, discrete and integrated. While the application of integrated circuits is covered, emphasis is placed on transistor circuit design. This is done because of our belief that even if the majority of those studying the book were not to pursue a career in IC design, knowledge of what is inside the IC package would enable intelligent and innovative application of such chips. Furthermore, with the advances in VLSI technology and design methodology, IC design itself is becoming accessible to an increasing number of engineers. PREREQUISITES The prerequisite for studying the material in this book is a first course in circuit analysis. As a review, some linear circuits material is included here in appendixes: specifically, two-port network parameters in Appendix B; some useful network theorems in Appendix C; single- time-constant circuits in Appendix D; and s-domain analysis in Appendix E. No prior knowledge of physical electronics is assumed. All required device physics is included, and Appendix A provides a brief description of IC fabrication. NEW TO THIS EDITION Although the philosophy and pedagogical approach of the first four editions have been retained, several changes have been made to both organization and coverage. 1. The book has been reorganized into three parts. Part I: Devices and Basic Circuits, composed of the first five chapters, provides a coherent and reasonably comprehen­ sive single-semester introductory course in electronics. Similarly, Part II: Analog and Digital Integrated Circuits (Chapters 6-10) presents a body of material suitable for a second one-semester course. Finally, four carefully chosen subjects are included in Part IH: Selected Topics. These can be used as enhancements or substitutions for some of the material in earlier chapters, as resources for projects or thesis work, and/or as part of a third course. 2. Each chapter is organized so that the essential "must-cover" topics are placed first, and the more specialized material appears last. This allows considerable flexibility in teaching and learning from the book. 3. Chapter 4, MOSFETs, and Chapter 5, BJTs, have been completely rewritten, updated, and made completely independent of each other. The M O S F E T chapter is placed first to reflect the fact that it is currently the most significant electronics device by a wide mar­ gin. However, if desired, the BJT can be covered first. Also, the identical structure of the two chapters makes teaching and learning about the second device easier and faster. x x i i i x x i v PREFACE 4. To make the first course comprehensive, both Chapters 4 and 5 include material on amplifier and digital-logic circuits. In addition, the frequency response of the basic common-source (common-emitter) amplifier is included. This is important for stu­ dents who might not take a second course in electronics. 5. A new chapter on integrated-circuit (IC) amplifiers (Chapter 6) is added. It begins with a comprehensive comparison between the M O S F E T and the BJT. Typical parameter values of devices produced by modern submicron fabrication processes are given and utilized in the examples, exercises, and end-of-chapter problems. The study of each amplifier configuration includes its frequency response. This should make the study of amplifier frequency response more interesting and somewhat easier. 6. The material on differential and multistage amplifiers in Chapter 7 has been rewritten to present the M O S F E T differential pair first. Here also, the examples, exercises, and problems have been expanded and updated to utilize parameter values representative of modern submicron technologies. 7. Throughout the book, greater emphasis is placed on M O S F E T circuits. 8. To make room for new material, some of the topics that have become less current, such as JFETs and TTL, or have remained highly specialized, such as GaAs devices and circuits, have been removed from the book. However, they are made available on the CD accompanying the book and on the book's website. 9. As a study aid and for easy reference, many summary tables have been added. 10. The review exercises, examples, and end-of-chapter problems have been updated and their numbers and variety increased. 11. The SPICE sections have been rewritten and the SPICE examples now utilize sche­ matic entry. To enable further experimentation, the files for all SPICE examples are provided on the CD and website. THE CD-ROM AND THE WEBSITE A CD-ROM accompanies this book. It contains much useful supplementary information and material intended to enrich the student's learning experience. These include (1) A Student's Edition of OrCAD PSpice 9.2. (2) The input files for all the SPICE examples in this book. (3) A link to the book's website accessing PowerPoint slides of every figure in this book that students can print and carry to class to facilitate taking notes. (4) Bonus text material of spe­ cialized topics not covered in the current edition of the textbook. These include: JFETs, GaAs devices and circuits, and TTL ckcuits. A website for the book has been set up (www.sedrasmith.org). Its content will change frequently to reflect new developments in the field. It features SPICE models and files for all PSpice examples, links to industrial and academic websites of interest, and a message center to communicate with the authors. There is also a link to the Higher Education Group of Oxford University Press so professors can receive complete text support. EMPHASIS ON DESIGN It has been our philosophy that circuit design is best taught by pointing out the various trade­ offs available in selecting a circuit configuration and in selecting component values for a given configuration. The emphasis on design has been increased in this edition by including more design examples, exercise problems, and end-of-chapter problems. Those exercises and PREFACE X X V end-of-chapter problems that are considered "design-oriented" are indicated with a D. Also, the most valuable design aid, SPICE, is utilized throughout the book, as already outlined. EXERCISES, END-OF-CHAPTER PROBLEMS, AND ADDITIONAL SOLVED PROBLEMS Over 450 exercises are integrated throughout the text. The answer to each exercise is given below the exercise so students can check their understanding of the material as they read. Solving these exercises should enable the reader to gauge his or her grasp of the preceding material. In addition, more than 1370 end-of-chapter problems, about a third of which are new to this edition, are provided. The problems are keyed to the individual sections and their degree of difficulty is indicated by a rating system: difficult problems are marked with as asterisk (*); more difficult problems with two asterisks (**); and very difficult (and/or time consuming) problems with three asterisks (***). W e must admit, however, that this classifi­ cation is by no means exact. Our rating no doubt had depended to some degree on our think­ ing (and mood!) at the time a particular problem was created. Answers to about half the problems are given in Appendix H. Complete solutions for all exercises and problems are included in the Instructor's Manual, which is available from the publisher for those instruc­ tors who adopt the book. As in the previous four editions, many examples are included. The examples, and indeed most of the problems and exercises, are based on real circuits and anticipate the applications encountered in designing real-life circuits. This edition continues the use of numbered solu­ tion steps in the figures for many examples, as an attempt to recreate the dynamics of the classroom. A recurring request from many of the students who used earlier editions of the book has been for solved problems. To satisfy this need, a book of additional problems with solutions is available with this edition (see the list of available ancillaries later in this preface). AN OUTLINE FOR THE READER The book starts with an introduction to the basic concepts of electronics in Chapter 1. Sig­ nals, their frequency spectra, and their analog and digital forms are presented. Amplifiers are introduced as circuit building blocks and their various types and models are studied. The basic element of digital electronics, the digital logic inverter, is defined in terms of its voltage- transfer characteristic, and its various implementations using voltage and current switches are discussed. This chapter also establishes some of the terminology and conventions used throughout the text. The next four chapters are devoted to the study of electronic devices and basic circuits and constitute the bulk of Part I of the text. Chapter 2 deals with operational amplifiers, their terminal characteristics, simple applications, and limitations. W e have chosen to discuss the op amp as a circuit building block at this early stage simply because it is easy to deal with and because the student can experiment with op-amp circuits' that perform nontrivial tasks with relative ease and with a sense of accomplishment. W e have found this approach to be highly motivating to the student. W e should point out, however, that part or all of this chap­ ter can be skipped and studied at a later stage (for instance in conjunction with Chapter 7, Chapter 8, and/or Chapter 9) with no loss of continuity. Chapter 3 is devoted to the study of the most fundamental electronic device, the /?«junc­ tion diode. The diode terminal characteristics and its hierarchy of models and basic circuit X X V i t~J PREFACE applications are presented. To understand the physical operation of the diode, and indeed of the M O S F E T and the BJT, a concise but substantial introduction to semiconductors and the injunction is provided. This material is placed near the end of the chapter (Section 3.7) so that part or all of it can be skipped by those who have already had a course in physical electronics. Chapters 4 and 5 deal with the two major electronic devices—the M O S field-effect tran­ sistor (MOSFET) and the bipolar junction transistor (BJT), respectively. The two chapters have an identical structure and are completely independent of each other and thus, can be covered in either order. Each chapter begins with a study of the device structure and its physical operation, leading to a description of its terminal characteristics. Then, to establish in the reader a high degree of familiarity with the operation of the transistor as a circuit ele­ ment, a large number of examples are presented of dc circuits utilizing the device. The large-signal operation of the basic common-source (common-emitter) circuit is then studied and used to delineate the region over which the device can be used as a linear amplifier from those regions where it can be used as a switch. This makes clear the need for biasing the transistor and leads naturally to the study of biasing methods. At this point, the biasing methods used are mostly for discrete circuits, leaving the study of IC biasing to Chapter 6. Next, small-signal operation is studied and small-signal models are derived. This is fol­ lowed by a study of the basic configurations of discrete-circuit amplifiers. The internal capacitive effects that limit the high-frequency operation of the transistor are then studied, and the high-frequency equivalent-circuit model is presented. This model is then used to determine the high-frequency response of-a common-source (common-emitter) amplifier. As well, the low-frequency response resulting from the use of coupling and bypass capaci­ tors is also presented. The basic digital-logic inverter circuit is then studied. Both chapters conclude with a study of the transistor models used in SPICE together with circuit-simulation examples using PSpice. This description should indicate that Chapters 4 and 5 contain the essential material for a first course in electronics. Part II: Analog and Digital Integrated Circuits (Chapters 6-10) begins with a compre­ hensive compilation and comparison of the properties of the M O S F E T and the BJT. The comparison is facilitated by the provision of typical parameter values of devices fabricated with modern process technologies. Following a study of biasing methods employed in IC amplifier design (Section 6.3), and some basic background material for the analysis of high- frequency amplifier response (Section 6.4), the various configurations of single-stage IC amplifiers are presented in a systematic manner. In each case, the M O S circuit is presented first. Some transi...

ebook img

microelectronic circuits PDF

696 Pages·2009·44.41 MB·English
by  
#circuits #integrated circuits #analog circuits
Save to my drive
Quick download
Download
Upgrade Premium
Most books are stored in the elastic cloud where traffic is expensive. For this reason, we have a limit on daily download.

Preview microelectronic circuits

THE OXFORD SERIES IN ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING Adel S. Sedra, Series Editor Allen and Holberg, CMOS Analog Circuit Design, 2nd Edition Bobrow, Elementary Linear Circuit Analysis, 2nd Edition Bobrow, Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering, 2nd Edition Burns and Roberts, An Introduction to Mixed-Signal IC Test and Measurement Campbell, The Science and Engineering of Microelectronic Fabrication, 2nd Edition Chen, Digital Signal Processing Chen, Linear System Theory and Design, 3rd Edition Chen, Signals and Systems, 3rd Edition Comer, Digital Logic and State Machine Design, 3rd Edition Comer, Microprocessor-based System Design Cooper and McGillem, Probabilistic Methods of Signal and System Analysis, 3rd Edition DeCarlo and Lin, Linear Circuit Analysis, 2nd Edition Dimitrijev, Understanding Semiconductor Devices Fortney, Principles of Electronics: Analog & Digital Franco, Electric Circuits Fundamentals Ghausi, Electronic Devices and Circuits: Discrete and Integrated Guru and Hiziroglu, Electric Machinery and Transformers, 3rd Edition Houts, Signal Analysis in Linear Systems Jones, Introduction to Optical Fiber Communication Systems Krein, Elements of Power Electronics Kuo, Digital Control Systems, 3rd Edition Lathi, Linear Systems and Signals, 2nd Edition Lathi, Modern Digital and Analog Communications Systems, 3rd Edition Lathi, Signal Processing and Linear Systems Martin, Digital Integrated Circuit Design Miner, Lines and Electromagnetic Fields for Engineers Parhami, Computer Arithmetic Roberts and Sedra, SPICE, 2nd Edition Roulston, An Introduction to the Physics of Semiconductor Devices Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics, 3rd Edition Santina, Stubbemd, and Hostetter, Digital Control System Design, 2nd Edition Sarma, Introduction to Electrical Engineering Schaumann and Van Valkenburg, Design of Analog Filters Schwarz and Oldham, Electrical Engineering: An Introduction, 2nd Edition Sedra and Smith, Microelectronic Circuits, 5th Edition Stefani, Savant, Shahian, and Hostetter, Design of Feedback Control Systems, 4th Edition Tsividis, Operation and Modeling of the MOS Transistor, 2nd Edition Van Valkenburg, Analog Filter Design Warner and Grung, Semiconductor Device Electronics Wolovich, Automatic Control Systems Yariv, Optical Electronics in Modern Communications, 5th Edition Zak, Systems and Control H EDITION MICROELECTRONIC CIRCUITS Adel S. Sedra University of Waterloo Kenneth C. Smith University of Toronto .JÈIÊIÈIÊM 'V: : New York Oxford OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 2004 Oxford University Press Oxford New York Auckland Bangkok Buenos Aires Cape Town Chennai Dar es Salaam Delhi Hong Kong Istanbul Karachi Kolkata Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Mumbai Nairobi São Paulo Shanghai Taipei Tokyo Toronto Copyright © 1982, 1987, 1991, 1998, 2004 by Oxford University Press, Inc. Published by Oxford University Press, Inc. 198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016 www.oup.com Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-514252-7 Cover Illustration: The chip shown is an inside view of a mass-produced surface-micromachined gyroscope sys- tem, integrated on a 3mm by 3mm die, and using a standard 3-m 2-V BiCMOS process suited for the harsh auto- motive environment. This first single-chip gyroscopic sensor, in which micro-mechanical and electronic components are intimately entwined on the same chip, provides unprecedented performance through the use of a collection of precision-directed techniques, including emphasis on differential operation (both mechanically and electronically) bolstered by trimmable thin-film resistive components. This tiny, robust, low-power, angular-rate- to-voltage transducer, having a sensitivity of 12.5mV/7s and resolution of 0.0157s (or 507hour) has a myriad of applications—including automotive skid control and rollover detection, dead reckoning for GPS backup and robot motion control, and camera-field stabilization. The complete gyroscope package, weighing 1/3 gram with a vol- ume of 1/6 cubic centimeter, uses 30mW from a 5-V supply. Source: John A. Geen, Steven J. Sherman, John F. Chang, Stephen R. Lewis; Single-chip surface micromachined integrated Gyroscope with 50°/h Allan deviation, IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits, vol. 37, pp. 1860-1866, December 2002. (Originally presented at ISSCC 2002.) Photographed by John Chang, provided by John Geen, both of Analog Devices, Micromachine Products Division, Cambridge, MA, USA. Printing number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper P R E F A C E xxiii PART I DEVICES AND BASIC CIRCUITS 2 1 Introduction to Electronics 5 2 Operational Amplifiers 63 3 Diodes 139 4 MOS Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFETs) 235 5 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs) 377 ANALOG AND DIGITAL INTEGRATED PART II CIRCUITS 542 6 Single-Stage Integrated-Circuit Amplifiers 545 7 Differential and Multistage Amplifiers 687 8 Feedback 791 9 Operational-Amplifier and Data-Converter Circuits 871 10 Digital CMOS Logic Circuits 949 PART III SELECTED TOPICS 1010 11 Memory and Advanced Digital Circuits 1013 12 Filters and Tuned Amplifiers 1083 13 Signal Generators and Waveform-Shaping Circuits 1165 14 Output Stages and Power Amplifiers 1229 A P P E N D I X E S A VLSI Fabrication Technology A-1 B Two-Port Network Parameters B-1 C Some Useful Network Theorems C-1 D Single-Time-Constant Circuits D-1 E s-Domain Analysis: Poles, Zeros, and Bode Plots E-1 F Bibliography F-1 G Standard Resistance Values and Unit Prefixes G-1 H Answers to Selected Problems H-1 I N D E X IN-1 P R E F A C E xxiii P A R T I DEVICES AND BASIC CIRCUITS 2 1 Introduction to Electronics 5 Introduction 5 1.1 Signals 6 1.2 Frequency Spectrum of Signals 7 1.3 Analog and Digital Signals 10 1.4 Amplifiers 13 1.4.1 Signal Amplification 13 1.4.2 Amplifier Circuit Symbol W 1.4.3 Voltage Gain 14 1.4.4 Power Gain and Current Gain 15 1.4.5 Expressing Gain in Decibels 15 1.4.6 The Amplifier Power Supplies 16 1.4.7 Amplifier Saturation 18 1.4.8 Nonlinear Transfer Characteristics and Biasing 19 1.4.9 Symbol Convention 22 1.5 Circuit Models for Amplifiers 23 1.5.1 Voltage Amplifiers 23 1.5.2 Cascaded Amplifiers 25 1.5.3 Other Amplifier Types 2 7 1.5.4 Relationships Between the Four Amplifier Models 27 1.6 Frequency Response of Amplifiers 31 1.6.1 Measuring the Amplifier Frequency Response 31 1.6.2 Amplifier Bandwidth 32 1.6.3 Evaluating the Frequency Response of Amplifiers 33 1.6.4 Single-Time-Constant Networks 33 1.6.5 Classification of Amplifiers Based on Frequency Response 38 1.7 Digital Logic Inverters 40 1.7.1 Function of the Inverter 40 1.7.2 The Voltage Transfer Characteristic (VTC) 41 1.7.3 Noise Margins 42 1.7.4 The Ideal VTC 43 1.7.5 Inverter Implementation 43 1.7.6 Power Dissipation 45 1.7.7 Propagation Delay 46 1.8 Circuit Simulation Using SPICE 49 Summary 50 Problems 51 DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS v i l 2 Operational Amplifiers 63 Introduction 63 2.1 The Ideal Op A m p 64 2.1.1 The Op-Amp Terminals 64 2.1.2 Function and Characteristics of the Ideal Op Amp 65 2.1.3 Differential and Common-Mode Signals 67 2.2 The Inverting Configuration 68 2.2.1 The Closed-Loop Gain 69 2.2.2 Effect of Finite Open-Loop Gain 71 2.2.3 Input arid Output Resistances 72 2.2.4 An Important Application—The Weighted Summer 75 2.3 The Noninverting Configuration 7 7 2.3.1 The Closed-Loop Gain 77 2.3.2 Characteristics of the Noninverting Configuration 78 2.3.3 Effect of Finite Open-Loop Gain 78 2.3.4 The Voltage Follower 79 2.4 Difference Amplifiers 81 2.4.1 A Single Op-Amp Difference Amplifier 82 2.4.2 A Superior Circuit—The Instrumentation Amplifier 85 2.5 Effect of Finite Open-Loop Gain and Bandwidth on Circuit Performance 89 2.5.1 Frequency Dependence of the Open-Loop Gain 89 2.5.2 Frequency Response of Closed-Loop Amplifiers 91 2.6 Large-Signal Operation of Op Amps 94 2.6.1 Output Voltage Saturation 94 2.6.2 Output Current Limits 94 2.6.3 Slew Rate 95 2.6.4 Full-Power Bandwidth 97 2.7 D C Imperfections 98 2.7.1 Offset Voltage 98 2.7.2 Input Bias and Offset Currents 102 2.8 Integrators and Differentiators 105 2.8.1 The Inverting Configuration with General Impedances 105 2.8.2 The Inverting Integrator 107 2.8.3 The Op-Amp Differentiator 112 2.9 The SPICE Op-Amp Model and Simulation Examples 114 2.9.1 Linear Macromodel 115 2.9.2 Nonlinear Macromodel 119 Summary 122 Problems 123 3 Diodes 139 Introduction 139 3.1 The Ideal Diode 140 3.1.1 Current-Voltage Characteristic 140 3.1.2 A Simple Application: The Rectifier 141 3.1.3 Another Application: Diode Logic Gates 144 V i i i ! DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS 4 MOS Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFETs) 235 Introduction 235 4.1 Device Structure and Physical Operation 236 4.1.1 Device Structure 236 4.1.2 Operation with No Gate Voltage 238 4.1.3 Creating a Channel for Current Flow 238 4.1.4 Applying a Small vDS 239 4.1.5 Operation as vDS Is Increased 241 4.1.6 Derivation of the iD-vDS Relationship 243 4.1.7 The p-Channel MOSFET 247 4.1.8 Complementary MOS or CMOS 247 4.1.9 Operating the MOS Transistor in the Subthreshold Region 248 4.2 Current-Voltage Characteristics 248 4.2.1 Circuit Symbol 248 4.2.2 The iD-vDS Characteristics 249 4.2.3 Finite Output Resistance in Saturation 253 4.2.4 Characteristics of the p-Channel MOSFET 256 4.2.5 The Role of the Substrate—The Body Effect 258 4.2.6 Temperature Effects 259 4.2.7 Breakdown and Input Protection 259 4.2.8 Summary 260 4.3 M O S F E T Circuits at D C 262 4.4 The M O S F E T as an Amplifier and as a Switch 270 4.4.1 Large-Signal Operation—The Transfer Characteristic 271 4.4.2 Graphical Derivation of the Transfer Characteristic 273 4.4.3 Operation as a Switch 274 4.4.4 Operation as a Linear Amplifier 274 4.4.5 Analytical Expressions for the Transfer Characteristic 275 4.4.6 A Final Remark on Biasing 280 4.5 Biasing in M O S Amplifier Circuits 280 4.5.1 Biasing by Fixing VGS 280 4.5.2 Biasing by Fixing VG and Connecting a Resistance in the Source 281 4.5.3 Biasing. Using a Drain-to-Gate Feedback Resistor 284 4.5.4 Biasing Using a Constant-Current Source 285 4.5.5 A Final Remark 287 4.6 Small-Signal Operation and Models 287 4.6.1 The DC Bias Point 287 4.6.2 The Signal Current in the Drain Terminal 288 4.6.3 The Voltage Gain 289 4.6.4 Separating the DC Analysis and the Signal Analysis 290 4.6.5 Small-Signal Equivalent-Circuit Models 290 4.6.6 The Transconductance gm 292 4.6.7 The T Equivalent-Circuit Model 295 4.6.8 Modeling the Body Effect 296 4.6.9 Summary 297 4.7 Single-Stage M O S Amplifiers 299 4.1.1 The Basic Structure 299 4.7.2 Characterizing Amplifiers 301 4.7.3 The Common-Source (CS) Amplifier 306 4.7.4 The Common-Source Amplifier with a Source Resistance 309 3.2 Terminal Characteristics of Junction Diodes 147 3.2.1 The Forward-Bias Region 148 3.2.2 The Reverse-Bias Region 152 3.2.3 The Breakdown Region 152 3.3 Modeling the Diode Forward Characteristic 153 3.3.1 The Exponential Model 153 3.3.2 Graphical Analysis Using the Exponential Model 154 3.3.3 Iterative Analysis Using the Exponential Model 154 3.3.4 The Need for Rapid Analysis 155 3.3.5 The Piecewise-Linear Model 755 3.3.6 The Constant-Voltage-Drop Model 157 3.3.7 The Ideal-Diode Model 158 3.3.8 The Small-Signal Model 159 3.3.9 Use of the Diode Forward Drop in Voltage Regulation 163 3.3.10 Summary 165 3.4 Operation in the Reverse Breakdown Region— Zener Diodes 167 3.4.1 Specifying and Modeling the Zener Diode 167 3.4.2 Use of the Zener as a Shunt Regulator 168 3.4.3 Temperature Effects 170 3.4.4 A Final Remark 171 3.5 Rectifier Circuits 171 3.5.1 The Half-Wave Rectifier 172 3.5.2 The Full-Wave Rectifier 174 3.5.3 The Bridge Rectifier 176 3.5.4 The Rectifier with a Filter Capacitor— The Peak Rectifier 177 3.5.5 Precision Half-Wave Rectifier— The Super Diode 183 3.6 Limiting and Clamping Circuits 184 3.6.1 Limiter Circuits 184 3.6.2 The Clamped Capacitor or DC Restorer 187 3.6.3 The Voltage Doubler 189 3.7 Physical Operation of Diodes 190 3.7.1 Basic Semiconductor Concepts 190 3.7.2 Thepn Junction Under Open-Circuit Conditions 196 3.7.3 The pn Junction Under Reverse-Bias Conditions 199 3.7.4 T h e J u n c t i o n in the Breakdown Region 203 3.7.5 The pn Junction Under Forward-Bias Conditions 204 3.7.6 Summary 208 3.8 Special Diode Types 209 3.8.1 The Schottky-Barrier Diode (SBD) 210 3.8.2 Varactors 210 3.8.3 Photodiodes 210 3.8.4 Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs) 211 3.9 The SPICE Diode Model and Simulation Examples 212 3.9.1 The Diode Model 212 3.9.2 The Zener Diode Model 213 Summary 217 Problems 218 X : . DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS 5.5 Biasing in BJT Amplifier Circuits 436 5.5.1 The Classical Discrete-Circuit Bias Arrangement 436 5.5.2 A Two-Power-Supply Version of the Classical Bias Arrangement 440 5.5.3 Biasing Using a Collector-to-Base Feedback Resistor 441 5.5.4 Biasing Using a Constant-Current Source 442 5.6 Small-Signal Operation and Models 443 5.6.1 The Collector Current and the Transconductance 443 5.6.2 The Base Current and the Input Resistance at the Base 445 5.6.3 The Emitter Current and the Input Resistance at the Emitter 446 5.6.4 Voltage Gain 447 5.6.5 Separating the Signal and the DC Quantities 448 5.6.6 The Hybrid-;? Model 448 5.6.7 The T Model 449 5.6.8 Application of the Small-Signal Equivalent Circuits 450 5.6.9 Performing Small-Signal Analysis Directly on the Circuit Diagram 457 5.6.10 Augmenting the Small-Signal Models to Account for the Early Effect 457 5.6.11 Summary 458 5.7 Single-Stage BJT Amplifiers 460 5.7.1 The Basic Structure 460 5.7.2 Characterizing BJT Amplifiers 461 5.7.3 The Common-Emitter (CE) Amplifier 467 5.7.4 The Common-Emitter Amplifier with an Emitter Resistance 470 5.7.5 The Common-Base (CB) Amplifier 475 5.7.6 The Common-Collector (CC) Amplifier or Emitter Follower 478 5.7.7 Summary and Comparisons 483 5.8 The BJT Internal Capacitances and High-Frequency Model 485 5.8.1 The Base-Charging or Diffusion Capacitance Cde 486 5.8.2 The Base-Emitter Junction Capacitance Cje 486 5.8.3 The Collector-Base Junction Capacitance C u 487 5.8.4 The High-Frequency Hybrid-^ Model 487 5.8.5 The Cutoff Frequency 487 5.8.6 Summary 490 5.9 Frequency Response of the Common-Emitter Amplifier 491 5.9.1 The Three Frequency Bands 491 5.9.2 The High-Frequency Response 492 5.9.3 The Low-Frequency Response 497 5.9.4 A Final Remark 503 5.10 The Basic BJT Digital Logic Inverter 503 5.10.1 The Voltage Transfer Characteristic 504 5.10.2 Saturated Versus Nonsaturated BJT Digital Circuits 505 5.11 The SPICE BJT Model and Simulation Examples 507 5.11.1 The SPICE Ebers-Moll Model of the BJT 507 5.11.2 The SPICE Gummel-Poon Model of the BJT 509 5.11.3 The SPICE BJT Model Parameters 510 5.11.4 The BJT Model Parameters BF and BR in SPICE 510 4.7.5 The Common-Gate (CG) Amplifier 311 4.7.6 The Common-Drain or Source-Follower Amplifier 315 4.7.7 Summary and Comparisons 318 4.8 The MOSFET Internal Capacitances and High-Frequency Model 320 4.8.1 The Gate Capacitive Effect 321 4.8.2 The Junction Capacitances 322 4.8.3 The High-Frequency MOSFET Model 322 4.8.4 The MOSFET Unity-Gain Frequency (fT) 324 4.8.5 Summary 325 4.9 Frequency Response of the CS Amplifier 326 4.9.1 The Three Frequency Bands 326 4.9.2 The High-Frequency Response 328 4.9.3 The Low-Frequency Response 332 4.9.4 A Final Remark 336 4.10 The C M O S Digital Logic Inverter 336 4.10.1 Circuit Operation 337 4.10.2 The Voltage Transfer Characteristic 339 4.10.3 Dynamic Operation 342 4.10.4 Current Flow and Power Dissipation 345 4.10.5 Summary 346 4.11 The Depletion-Type M O S F E T 346 4.12 The SPICE M O S F E T Model and Simulation Example 351 A.U.I MOSFET Models 351 4.12.2 MOSFET Model Parameters 352 Summary 359 Problems 360 5 Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs) 377 Introduction 377 5.1 Device Structure and Physical Operation 378 5.1.1 Simplified Structure and Modes of Operation 378 5.1.2 Operation of the npn Transistor in the Active Mode 380 5.1.3 Structure of Actual Transistors 386 5.1.4 The Ebers-Moll (EM) Model 387 5.1.5 Operation in the Saturation Mode 390 5.1.6 The pnp Transistor 391 5.2 Current-Voltage Characteristics 392 5.2.1 Circuit Symbols and Conventions 392 5.2.2 Graphical Representation of Transistor Characteristics 397 5.2.3 Dependence of i c on the Collector Voltage—The Early Effect 399 5.2.4 The Common-Emitter Characteristics 401 5.2.5 Transistor Breakdown 406 5.2.6 Summary 407 5.3 The BJT as an Amplifier and as a Switch 407 5.3.1 Large-Signal Operation—The Transfer Characteristic 410 5.3.2 Amplifier Gain 412 5.3.3 Graphical Analysis 415 5.3.4 Operation as a Switch 419 5.4 BJT Circuits at DC 421 DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS Summary 516 Problems 5 7 7 ANALOG AND DIGITAL INTEGRATED PART II CIRCUITS 542 6 Single-Stage Integrated-Circuit Amplifiers 545 Introduction 545 6.1 IC Design Philosophy 546 6.2 Comparison of the M O S F E T and the BJT 547 6.2.1 Typical Values of MOSFET Parameters 547 6.2.2 Typical Values of IC BJT Parameters 548 6.2.3 Comparison of Important Characteristics 550 6.2.4 Combining MOS and Bipolar Transistors—BiCMOS Circuits 567 6.2.5 Validity of the Square-Law MOSFET Model 562 6.3 IC Biasing—Current Sources, Current Mirrors, and Current-Steering Circuits 562 6.3.1 The Basic MOSFET Current Source 562 6.3.2 MOS Current-Steering Circuits 565 6.3.3 BJT Circuits '567 6.4 High-Frequency Response—General Considerations 571 6.4.1 The High-Frequency Gain Function 572 6.4.2 Determining the 3-dB Frequency fH 573 6.4.3 Using Open-Circuit Time Constants for the Approximate Determination offH 575 6.4.4 Miller's Theorem 578 6.5 The Common-Source and Common-Emitter Amplifiers with Active Loads 582 6.5.1 The Common-Source Circuit 582 6.5.2 CMOS Implementation of the Common-Source Amplifier 583 6.5.3 The Common-Emitter Circuit 588 6.6 High-Frequency Response of the CS and CE Amplifiers 588 6.6.1 Analysis Using Miller's Theorem 589 6.6.2 Analysis Using Open-Circuit Time Constants 590 6.6.3 Exact Analysis 597 6.6.4 Adapting the Formulas for the Case of the CE Amplifier 595 6.6.5 The Situation When Rsig Is Low 597 6.7 The Common-Gate and Common-Base Amplifiers with Active Loads 600 6.7.1 The Common-Gate Amplifier 600 6.7.2 The Common-Base Amplifier 610 6.7.3 A Concluding Remark 613 6.8 The Cascode Amplifier 613 6.8.1 The MOS Cascode 614 6.8.2 Frequency Response of the MOS Cascode 618 6.8.3 The BJT Cascode 623 6.8.4 A Cascode Current Source 625 6.8.5 Double Cascoding 626 6.8.6 The Folded Cascode 627 6.8.7 BiCMOS Cascodes 628 DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS . „.. x i i i 7 Differential and Multistage Amplifiers 687 Introduction 687 7.1 T h e M O S Differential Pair 688 7.1.1 Operation with a Common-Mode Input Voltage 689 7.1.2 Operation with a Differential Input Voltage 697 7.1.3 Large-Signal Operation 693 7.2 Small-Signal Operation of the M O S Differential Pair 696 7.2.1 Differential Gain 697 7.2.2 Common-Mode Gain and Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) 700 7.3 The BJT Differential Pair 704 7.3.1 Basic Operation 704 7.3.2 Large-Signal Operation 707 7.3.3 Small-Signal Operation 709 7.4 Other Nonideal Characteristics of the Differential Amplifier 720 7.4. l' Input Offset Voltage of the MOS Differential Pair 720 7.4.2 Input Offset Voltage of the Bipolar Differential Pair 723 7.4.3 Input Bias and Offset Currents of the Bipolar Pair 725 1AA Input Common-Mode Range 726 7.4.5 A Concluding Remark 726 7.5 The Differential Amplifier with Active Load 727 7.5.1 Differential-to-Single-Ended Conversion 727 • 7.5.2 The Active-Loaded MOS Differential Pair 728 7.5.3 Differential Gain of the Active-Loaded MOS Pair 729 7.5.4 Common-Mode Gain and CMRR 732 7.5.5 The Bipolar Differential Pair with Active Load 733 6.9 The CS and C E Amplifiers with Source (Emitter) Degeneration 629 6.9.1 The CS Amplifier with a Source Resistance 629 6.9.2 The CE Amplifier with an Emitter Resistance 633 6.10 The Source and Emitter Followers 635 6.10.1 The Source Follower 635 6.10.2 Frequency Response of the Source Follower 637 6.10.3 The Emitter Follower 639 6.11 Some Useful Transistor Pairings 641 6.11.1 The CD-CS, CC-CE and CD-CE Configurations 641 6.11.2 The Darlington Configuration 645 6.11.3 The CC-CB and CD-CG Configurations 646 6.12 Current-Mirror Circuits with Improved Performance 649 6.12.1 Cascode MOS Mirrors 649 6.12.2 A Bipolar Mirror with Base-Current Compensation 650 6.12.3 The Wilson Current Mirror 657 6.12.4 The Wilson MOS Mirror 652 6.12.5 The Widlar Current Source 653 6.13 SPICE Simulation Examples 656 Summary 665 Problems 666 X l v DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS W 8.10 Stability Study Using Bode Plots 845 8.10.1 Gain and Phase Margins 845 8.10.2 Effect of Phase Margin on Closed-Loop Response 846 8.10.3 An Alternative Approach for Investigating Stability 847 8.11 Frequency Compensation 849 8.11.1 Theory 850 8.11.2 Implementation 851 8.11.3 Miller Compensation and Pole Splitting 852 8.12 SPICE Simulation Example 855 Summary 859 Problems 860 9 Operational-Amplifier and Data-Converter Circuits 871 Introduction 871 9.1 The Two-Stage C M O S Op A m p 872 9.1.1 The Circuit 872 9.1.2 Input Common-Mode Range and Output Swing 873 i 9.1.3 Voltage Gain 874 9.1.4 Frequency Response 876 9.1.5 Slew Rate 879 9.2 The Folded-Cascode C M O S Op A m p 883 9.2.1 The Circuit 883 9.2.2 Input Common-Mode Range and the Output Voltage Swing 885 9.2.3 Voltage Gain 886 9.2.4 Frequency Response 888 9.2.5 Slew Rate 888 9.2.6 Increasing the Input Common-Mode Range: Rail-to-Rail Input Operation 890 9.2.7 Increasing the Output Voltage Range: The Wide-Swing Current Mirror 892 9.3 The 741 Op-Amp Circuit 893 9.3.1 Bias Circuit 893 9.3.2 Short-Circuit Protection Circuitry 895 9.3.3 The Input Stage 895 9.3.4 The Second Stage 895 9.3.5 The Output Stage 896 9.3.6 Device Parameters 898 9.4 D C Analysis of the 741 899 9.4.1 Reference Bias Current 899 9.4.2 Input-Stage Bias 899 9.4.3 Input Bias and Offset Currents 902 9.4.4 Input Offset Voltage 902 9.4.5 Input Common-Mode Range 902 9.4.6 Second-Stage Bias 902 9.4.7 Output-Stage Bias 903 9.4.8 Summary 904 9.5 Small-Signal Analysis of the 741 905 9.5.1 The Input Stage 905 9.5.2 The Second Stage 910 9.5.3 The Output Stage 912 7.6 Frequency Response of the Differential Amplifier 740 7.6.1 Analysis of the Resistively Loaded MOS Amplifier 740 7.6.2 Analysis of the Active-Loaded MOS Amplifier 744 7.7 Multistage Amplifiers 749 1.1.1 A Two-Stage CMOS Op Amp 749 1.1.2 A Bipolar Op Amp 758 7.8 SPICE Simulation Example 767 Summary 773 Problems 775 8 Feedback 791 Introduction 791 8.1 The General Feedback Structure 792 8.2 Some Properties of Negative Feedback 795 8.2.1 Gain Desensitivity 795 8.2.2 Bandwidth Extension 795 8.2.3 Noise Reduction 796 8.2.4 Reduction in Nonlinear Distortion 797 8.3 The Four Basic Feedback Topologies 798 8.3.1 Voltage Amplifiers 799 8.3.2 Current Amplifiers 799 8.3.3 Transconductance Amplifiers 801 8.3.4 Transresistance Amplifiers 802 8.4 The Series-Shunt Feedback Amplifier 802 8.4.1 The Ideal Situation 802 8.4.2 The Practical Situation 804 8.4.3 Summary 807 8.5 The Series-Series Feedback Amplifier 811 8.5.1 The Ideal Case 811 8.5.2 The Practical Case 812 8.5.3 Summary 814 8.6 The Shunt-Shunt and Shunt-Series Feedback Amplifiers 818 8.6.1 The Shunt-Shunt Configuration 819 8.6.2 An Important Note 823 8.6.3 The Shunt-Series Configuration 823 8.6.4 Summary of Results 831 8.7 Determining the Loop Gain 831 8.7.1 An Alternative Approach for Finding A/5 831 8.7.2 Equivalence of Circuits from a Feedback-Loop Point of View 833 8.8 The Stability Problem 834 8.8.1 Transfer Function of the Feedback Amplifier 834 8.8.2 The Nyquist Plot 835 8.9 Effect of Feedback on the Amplifier Poles 836 8.9.1 Stability and Pole Location 837 8.9.2 Poles of the Feedback Amplifier 838 8.9.3 Amplifier with Single-Pole Response 838 8.9.4 Amplifier with Two-Pole Response 839 8.9.5 Amplifiers with Three or More Poles 843 x v i DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS 9.6 Gain, Frequency Response, and Slew Rate of the 741 917 9.6.1 Small-Signal Gain 917 9.6.2 Frequency Response 917 9.6.3 A Simplified Model 918 9.6.4 Slew Rate 919 9.6.5 Relationship Between/, and SR 920 9.7 Data Converters—An Introduction 922 9.7.1 Digital Processing of Signals 922 9.7.2 Sampling of Analog Signals 922 9.7.3 Signal Quantization 924 9.1 A The AID and D/A Converters as Functional Blocks 924 9.8 D/A Converter Circuits 925 9.8.1 Basic Circuit Using Binary-Weighted Resistors 925 9.8.2 R-2R Ladders 926 9.8.3 A Practical Circuit Implementation 927 9.8.4 Current Switches 928 9.9 A/D Converter Circuits 929 9.9.1 The Feedback-Type Converter 929 9.9.2 The Dual-Slope A/D Converter 930 9.9.3 The Parallel or Flash Converter 932 9.9.4 The Charge-Redistribution Converter 932 9.10 SPICE Simulation Example 934 Summary 940 Problems 941 10 Digital CMOS Logic Circuits 949 Introduction 949 10.1 Digital Circuit Design: An Overview 950 10.1.1 Digital IC Technologies and Logic-Circuit Families 950 10.1.2 Logic-Circuit Characterization 952 10.1.3 Styles for Digital System Design 954 10.1.4 Design Abstraction and Computer Aids 955 10.2 Design and Performance Analysis of the C M O S Inverter 955 10.2.1 Circuit Structure 955 10.2.2 Static Operation 956 10.2.3 Dynamic Operation 958 10.2.4 Dynamic Power Dissipation 961 10.3 C M O S Logic-Gate Circuits 963 10.3.1 Basic Structure 963 10.3.2 The Two-Input NOR Gate 966 10.3.3 The Two-Input NAND Gate 966 10.3.4 A Complex Gate 967 10.3.5 Obtaining the PUN from the PDN and Vice Versa 968 10.3.6 The Exclusive-OR Function 969 10.3.7 Summary of the Synthesis Method 970 10.3.8 Transistor Sizing 970 10.3.9 Effects of Fan-In and Fan-Out on Propagation Delay 973 10.4 Pseudo-NMOS Logic Circuits 974 10.4.1 The Pseudo-NMOS Inverter 974 10.4.2 Static Characteristics 975 DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS ' ' x v i i 10.4.3 Derivation of the VTC 976 10.4.4 Dynamic Operation 979 10.4.5 Design 979 10.4.6 Gate Circuits 980 10.4.7 Concluding Remarks 9S0 10.5 Pass-Transistor Logic Circuits 982 10.5.1 An Essential Design Requirement 983 10.5.2 Operation with NMOS Transistors as Switches 984 10.5.3 The Use of CMOS Transmission Gates as Switches 988 10.5.4 Pass-Transistor Logic Circuit Examples 990 10.5.5 A Final Remark 991 10.6 Dynamic Logic Circuits 991 10.6.1 Basic Principle 992 10.6.2 Nonideal Effects 993 10.6.3 Domino CMOS Logic 996 10.6.4 Concluding Remarks 998 10.7 Spice Simulation Example 998 Summary 1002 Problems 1002 PART 111 SELECTED TOPICS 1010 11 Memory and Advanced Digital Circuits 1013 Introduction 1013 11.1 Latches and Flip-flops 1014 11.1.1 The Latch 1014 11.1.2 The SR Flip-Flop 1015 11.1.3 CMOS Implementation of SR Flip-Flops 1016 11.1.4 A Simpler CMOS Implementation of the Clocked SR Flip- Flop 1019 11.1.5 D Flip-Flop Circuits 1019 11.2 Multivibrator Circuits 1021 11.2.1 A CMOS Monostable Circuit 1022 11.2.2 An Astable Circuit 1026 11.2.3 The Ring Ospillator 1027 11.3 Semiconductor Memories: Types and Architectures 1028 11.3.1 Memory-Chip Organization 1028 11.3.2 Memory-Chip Timing 1030 11.4 Random-Access Memory (RAM) Cells 1031 11.4.1 Static Memory Cell 1031 11.4.2 Dynamic Memory Cell 1036 11.5 Sense Amplifiers and Address Decoders ~ 1038 11.5.1 The Sense Amplifier 1038 11.5.2 The Row-Address Decoder 1043 11.5.3 The Column-Address Decoder 1045 11.6 Read-Only Memory (ROM) 1046 11.6.1 AMOS ROM 1047 11.6.2 Mask-Programmable ROMs 1049 11.6.3 Programmable ROMs (PROMs and EPROMs) 1049 J DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS 11.7 Emitter-Coupled Logic (ECL) 1052 11.7.1 The Basic Principle 1052 11.7.2 ECL Families 1053 11.7.3 The Basic Gate Circuit 1053 11.7.4 Voltage Transfer Characteristics 1057 11.7.5 Fan-Out 1061 11.7.6 Speed of Operation and Signal Transmission 1062 11.7.7 Power Dissipation 1063 11.7.8 Thermal Effects 1063 11.7.9 The Wired-OR Capability 1066 11.7.10 Some Final Remarks 1066 11.8 BiCMOS Digital Circuits 1067 11.8.1 The BiCMOS Inverter 1067 11.8.2 Dynamic Operation 1069 11.8.3 BiCMOS Logic Gates 1070 11.9 SPICE Simulation Example 1071 Summary 1076 Problems 1077 12 Filters and Tuned Amplifiers 1083 Introduction 1083 12.1 Filter Transmission, Types, and Specification 1084 12.1.1 Filter Transmission 1084 12.1.2 Filter Types 1085 12.1.3 Filter Specification 1085 12.2 The Filter Transfer Function 1088 12.3 Butterworth and Chebyshev Filters 1091 12.3.1 The Butterworth Filter 1091 12.3.2 The Chebyshev Filter 1095 12A First-Order and Second-Order Filter Functions 1098 12.4.1 First-Order Filters 1098 12.4.2 Second-Order Filter Functions 1101 12.5 The Second-Order LCR Resonator 1106 12.5 A The Resonator Natural Modes 1106 12.5.2 Realization of Transmission Zeros 1107 12.5.3 Realization of the Low-Pass Function 1108 12.5.4 Realization of the High-Pass Function 1108 12.5.5 Realization of the Bandpass Function 1108 12.5.6 Realization of the Notch Functions 1110 12.5.7 Realization of the All-Pass Function 1111 12.6 Second-Order Active Filters Based on Inductor Replacement 1112 12.6.1 The Antoniou Inductance-Simulation Circuit 1112 12.6.2 The Op Amp-RC Resonator 1114 12.6.3 Realization of the Various Filter Types 1114 12.6.4 The All-Pass Circuit 1118 12.7 Second-Order Active Filters Based on the Two-Integrator-Loop Topology 1120 12.7.1 Derivation of the Two-Integrator-Loop Biquad 1120 12.1.2 Circuit Implementation 1122 DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS „ . j X 12.7.3 An Alternative Two-Integrator-Loop Biquad Circuit 1123 12.7 A Final Remarks 1125 12.8 Single-Amplifier Biquadratic Active Filters 1125 12.8.1 Synthesis of the Feedback Loop 1126 12.8.2 Injecting the Input Signal 1128 12.8.3 Generation of Equivalent Feedback Loops 1130 12.9 Sensitivity 1133 12.10 Switched-Capacitor Filters 1136 12.10.1 The Basic Principle 1136 12.10.2 Practical Circuits 1137 12.10.3 A Final Remark 1141 12.11 Tuned Amplifiers 1141 12.11.1 The Basic Principle 1141 12.11.2 Inductor Losses 1143 12.11.3 Use of Transformers 1144 12.11.4 Amplifiers with Multiple Tuned Circuits 1145 12.11.5 The Cascode and the CC-CB Cascade 1146 12.11.6 Synchronous Tuning 1147 12.11.7 Stagger-Timing 1148 12.12 SPICE Simulation Examples 1152 Summary 1158 Problems 1159 13 Signal Generators And Waveform-Shaping Circuits 1165 Introduction 1165 13.1 Basic Principles of Sinusoidal Oscillators 1166 13.1.1 The Oscillator Feedback Loop 1166 13.1.2 The Oscillation Criterion 1167 13.1.3 Nonlinear Amplitude Control 1168 13.1 A A Popular Limiter Circuit for Amplitude Control 1169 13.2 Op A m p - R C Oscillator Circuits 1171 13.2.1 The Wien-Bridge Oscillator 1171 13.2.2 The Phase-Shift Oscillator 1174 13.2.3 The Quadrature Oscillator 1176 13.2.4 The Active-Filter-Tuned Oscillator 1177 13.2.5 A Final Remark 1179 13.3 L C and Crystal Oscillators 7779 13.3.1 LC-Tuned Oscillators 7779 13.3.2 Crystal Oscillators 1182 13.4 Bistable Multivibrators 1185 13.4.1 The Feedback Loop 1185 13.4.2 Transfer Characteristics of the Bistable Circuit 1186 13.4.3 Triggering the Bistable Circuit 1187 13 A A The Bistable Circuit as a Memory Element 1188 13.4.5 A Bistable Circuit with Noninverting Transfer ' Characteristics 1188 13.4.6 Application of the Bistable Circuit as a Comparator 1189 13.4.7 Making the Output Levels More Precise 7797 X X ! DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS ^ ; XXI 14.6.3 Power Dissipation Versus Temperature 1250 14.6.4 Transistor Case and Heat Sink 1251 14.6.5 The BJT Safe Operating Area 1254 14.6.6 Parameter Values of Power Transistors 1255 14.7 Variations on the Class A B Configuration 1256 14.7.1 Use of Input Emitter Followers 1256 14.7.2 Use of Compound Devices 1257 14.7.3 Short-Circuit Protection 1259 14.7 A Thermal Shutdown 1260 14.8 IC Power Amplifiers 1261 14.8.1 A Fixed-Gain IC Power Amplifier 1261 14.8.2 Power Op Amps 1265 14.8.3 The Bridge Amplifier 1265 14.9 M O S Power Transistors 1266 14.9.1 Structure of the Power MOSFET 1266 14.9.2 Characteristics of Power MOSFETs 1268 14.9.3 Temperature Effects 1269 14.9.4 Comparison with BJTs 1269 14.9.5 A Class AB Output Stage Utilizing MOSFETs 1270 14.10 SPICE Simulation Example 1271 Summary 1276 Problems 1277 A P P E N D I X E S A VLSI Fabrication Technology A-1 B Two-Port Network Parameters B-1 C Some Useful Network Theorems C-1 D Single-Time-Constant Circuits D-1 E s-Domain Analysis: Poles, Zeros, and Bode Plots E-1 F Bibliography F-1 G Standard Resistance Values and Unit Prefixes G-1 H Answers to Selected Problems H-1 I N D E X IN-1 13.5 Generation of Square and Triangular Waveforms Using Astable Multivibrators 1192 13.5.1 Operation of the Astable Multivibrator 1192 13.5.2 Generation of Triangular Waveforms 1194 13.6 Generation of a Standardized Pulse—The Monostable Multivibrator 1196 13.7 Integrated-Circuit Timers 1198 13.7.1 The 555 Circuit 1198 13.7.2 Implementing a Monostable Multivibrator Using the 555 IC 1199 13.7.3 An Astable Multivibrator Using the 555 IC 1201 13.8 Nonlinear Waveform-Shaping Circuits 1203 13.8.1 The Breakpoint Method 1203 13.8.2 The Nonlinear-Amplification Method 1205 13.9 Precision Rectifier Circuits 1206 13.9.1 Precision Half-Wave Rectifier-The "Superdiode" 1207 13.9.2 An Alternative Circuit 1208 13.9.3 An Application: Measuring AC Voltages 1209 13.9.4 Precision Full-Wave Rectifier 1210 13.9.5 A Precision Bridge Rectifier for Instrumentation Applications 1212 13.9.6 Precision Peak Rectifiers 1213 13.9.7 A Buffered Precision Peak Detector 1213 13.9.8 A Precision Clamping Circuit 1214 13.10 SPICE Simulation Examples 1214 Summary 1219 Problems 1220 14 Output Stages and Power Amplifiers 1229 Introduction 1229 14.1 Classification of Output Stages 1230 14.2 Class A Output Stage 1231 14.2.1 Transfer Characteristic 1231 14.2.2 Signal Waveforms 1233 14.2.3 Power Dissipation 1233 14.2.4 Power-Conversion Efficiency 1235 14.3 Class B Output Stage 1235 14.3.1 Circuit Operation 1236 14.3.2 Transfer Characteristic 1236 14.3.3 Power-Conversion Efficiency 1236 14.3.4 Power Dissipation 1238 14.3.5 Reducing Crossover Distortion 1240 14.3.6 Single-Supply Operation 1240 14.4 Class A B Output Stage 1241 14.4.1 Circuit Operation 1242 14.4.2 Output Resistance 1243 14.5 Biasing the Class AB Circuit 1244 14.5.1 Biasing Using Diodes 1244 14.5.2 Biasing Using the VBE Multiplier 1246 14.6 Power BJTs 1249 14.6.1 Junction Temperature 1249 14.6.2 Thermal Resistance 1249 Microelectronic Circuits, fifth edition, is intended as a text for the core courses in electronic circuits taught to majors in electrical and computer engineering. It should also prove useful to engineers and other professionals wishing to update their knowledge through self-study. As was the case with the first four editions, the objective of this book is to develop in the reader the ability to analyze and design electronic circuits, both analog and digital, discrete and integrated. While the application of integrated circuits is covered, emphasis is placed on transistor circuit design. This is done because of our belief that even if the majority of those studying the book were not to pursue a career in IC design, knowledge of what is inside the IC package would enable intelligent and innovative application of such chips. Furthermore, with the advances in VLSI technology and design methodology, IC design itself is becoming accessible to an increasing number of engineers. PREREQUISITES The prerequisite for studying the material in this book is a first course in circuit analysis. As a review, some linear circuits material is included here in appendixes: specifically, two-port network parameters in Appendix B; some useful network theorems in Appendix C; single- time-constant circuits in Appendix D; and s-domain analysis in Appendix E. No prior knowledge of physical electronics is assumed. All required device physics is included, and Appendix A provides a brief description of IC fabrication. NEW TO THIS EDITION Although the philosophy and pedagogical approach of the first four editions have been retained, several changes have been made to both organization and coverage. 1. The book has been reorganized into three parts. Part I: Devices and Basic Circuits, composed of the first five chapters, provides a coherent and reasonably comprehen­ sive single-semester introductory course in electronics. Similarly, Part II: Analog and Digital Integrated Circuits (Chapters 6-10) presents a body of material suitable for a second one-semester course. Finally, four carefully chosen subjects are included in Part IH: Selected Topics. These can be used as enhancements or substitutions for some of the material in earlier chapters, as resources for projects or thesis work, and/or as part of a third course. 2. Each chapter is organized so that the essential "must-cover" topics are placed first, and the more specialized material appears last. This allows considerable flexibility in teaching and learning from the book. 3. Chapter 4, MOSFETs, and Chapter 5, BJTs, have been completely rewritten, updated, and made completely independent of each other. The M O S F E T chapter is placed first to reflect the fact that it is currently the most significant electronics device by a wide mar­ gin. However, if desired, the BJT can be covered first. Also, the identical structure of the two chapters makes teaching and learning about the second device easier and faster. x x i i i x x i v PREFACE 4. To make the first course comprehensive, both Chapters 4 and 5 include material on amplifier and digital-logic circuits. In addition, the frequency response of the basic common-source (common-emitter) amplifier is included. This is important for stu­ dents who might not take a second course in electronics. 5. A new chapter on integrated-circuit (IC) amplifiers (Chapter 6) is added. It begins with a comprehensive comparison between the M O S F E T and the BJT. Typical parameter values of devices produced by modern submicron fabrication processes are given and utilized in the examples, exercises, and end-of-chapter problems. The study of each amplifier configuration includes its frequency response. This should make the study of amplifier frequency response more interesting and somewhat easier. 6. The material on differential and multistage amplifiers in Chapter 7 has been rewritten to present the M O S F E T differential pair first. Here also, the examples, exercises, and problems have been expanded and updated to utilize parameter values representative of modern submicron technologies. 7. Throughout the book, greater emphasis is placed on M O S F E T circuits. 8. To make room for new material, some of the topics that have become less current, such as JFETs and TTL, or have remained highly specialized, such as GaAs devices and circuits, have been removed from the book. However, they are made available on the CD accompanying the book and on the book's website. 9. As a study aid and for easy reference, many summary tables have been added. 10. The review exercises, examples, and end-of-chapter problems have been updated and their numbers and variety increased. 11. The SPICE sections have been rewritten and the SPICE examples now utilize sche­ matic entry. To enable further experimentation, the files for all SPICE examples are provided on the CD and website. THE CD-ROM AND THE WEBSITE A CD-ROM accompanies this book. It contains much useful supplementary information and material intended to enrich the student's learning experience. These include (1) A Student's Edition of OrCAD PSpice 9.2. (2) The input files for all the SPICE examples in this book. (3) A link to the book's website accessing PowerPoint slides of every figure in this book that students can print and carry to class to facilitate taking notes. (4) Bonus text material of spe­ cialized topics not covered in the current edition of the textbook. These include: JFETs, GaAs devices and circuits, and TTL ckcuits. A website for the book has been set up (www.sedrasmith.org). Its content will change frequently to reflect new developments in the field. It features SPICE models and files for all PSpice examples, links to industrial and academic websites of interest, and a message center to communicate with the authors. There is also a link to the Higher Education Group of Oxford University Press so professors can receive complete text support. EMPHASIS ON DESIGN It has been our philosophy that circuit design is best taught by pointing out the various trade­ offs available in selecting a circuit configuration and in selecting component values for a given configuration. The emphasis on design has been increased in this edition by including more design examples, exercise problems, and end-of-chapter problems. Those exercises and PREFACE X X V end-of-chapter problems that are considered "design-oriented" are indicated with a D. Also, the most valuable design aid, SPICE, is utilized throughout the book, as already outlined. EXERCISES, END-OF-CHAPTER PROBLEMS, AND ADDITIONAL SOLVED PROBLEMS Over 450 exercises are integrated throughout the text. The answer to each exercise is given below the exercise so students can check their understanding of the material as they read. Solving these exercises should enable the reader to gauge his or her grasp of the preceding material. In addition, more than 1370 end-of-chapter problems, about a third of which are new to this edition, are provided. The problems are keyed to the individual sections and their degree of difficulty is indicated by a rating system: difficult problems are marked with as asterisk (*); more difficult problems with two asterisks (**); and very difficult (and/or time consuming) problems with three asterisks (***). W e must admit, however, that this classifi­ cation is by no means exact. Our rating no doubt had depended to some degree on our think­ ing (and mood!) at the time a particular problem was created. Answers to about half the problems are given in Appendix H. Complete solutions for all exercises and problems are included in the Instructor's Manual, which is available from the publisher for those instruc­ tors who adopt the book. As in the previous four editions, many examples are included. The examples, and indeed most of the problems and exercises, are based on real circuits and anticipate the applications encountered in designing real-life circuits. This edition continues the use of numbered solu­ tion steps in the figures for many examples, as an attempt to recreate the dynamics of the classroom. A recurring request from many of the students who used earlier editions of the book has been for solved problems. To satisfy this need, a book of additional problems with solutions is available with this edition (see the list of available ancillaries later in this preface). AN OUTLINE FOR THE READER The book starts with an introduction to the basic concepts of electronics in Chapter 1. Sig­ nals, their frequency spectra, and their analog and digital forms are presented. Amplifiers are introduced as circuit building blocks and their various types and models are studied. The basic element of digital electronics, the digital logic inverter, is defined in terms of its voltage- transfer characteristic, and its various implementations using voltage and current switches are discussed. This chapter also establishes some of the terminology and conventions used throughout the text. The next four chapters are devoted to the study of electronic devices and basic circuits and constitute the bulk of Part I of the text. Chapter 2 deals with operational amplifiers, their terminal characteristics, simple applications, and limitations. W e have chosen to discuss the op amp as a circuit building block at this early stage simply because it is easy to deal with and because the student can experiment with op-amp circuits' that perform nontrivial tasks with relative ease and with a sense of accomplishment. W e have found this approach to be highly motivating to the student. W e should point out, however, that part or all of this chap­ ter can be skipped and studied at a later stage (for instance in conjunction with Chapter 7, Chapter 8, and/or Chapter 9) with no loss of continuity. Chapter 3 is devoted to the study of the most fundamental electronic device, the /?«junc­ tion diode. The diode terminal characteristics and its hierarchy of models and basic circuit X X V i t~J PREFACE applications are presented. To understand the physical operation of the diode, and indeed of the M O S F E T and the BJT, a concise but substantial introduction to semiconductors and the injunction is provided. This material is placed near the end of the chapter (Section 3.7) so that part or all of it can be skipped by those who have already had a course in physical electronics. Chapters 4 and 5 deal with the two major electronic devices—the M O S field-effect tran­ sistor (MOSFET) and the bipolar junction transistor (BJT), respectively. The two chapters have an identical structure and are completely independent of each other and thus, can be covered in either order. Each chapter begins with a study of the device structure and its physical operation, leading to a description of its terminal characteristics. Then, to establish in the reader a high degree of familiarity with the operation of the transistor as a circuit ele­ ment, a large number of examples are presented of dc circuits utilizing the device. The large-signal operation of the basic common-source (common-emitter) circuit is then studied and used to delineate the region over which the device can be used as a linear amplifier from those regions where it can be used as a switch. This makes clear the need for biasing the transistor and leads naturally to the study of biasing methods. At this point, the biasing methods used are mostly for discrete circuits, leaving the study of IC biasing to Chapter 6. Next, small-signal operation is studied and small-signal models are derived. This is fol­ lowed by a study of the basic configurations of discrete-circuit amplifiers. The internal capacitive effects that limit the high-frequency operation of the transistor are then studied, and the high-frequency equivalent-circuit model is presented. This model is then used to determine the high-frequency response of-a common-source (common-emitter) amplifier. As well, the low-frequency response resulting from the use of coupling and bypass capaci­ tors is also presented. The basic digital-logic inverter circuit is then studied. Both chapters conclude with a study of the transistor models used in SPICE together with circuit-simulation examples using PSpice. This description should indicate that Chapters 4 and 5 contain the essential material for a first course in electronics. Part II: Analog and Digital Integrated Circuits (Chapters 6-10) begins with a compre­ hensive compilation and comparison of the properties of the M O S F E T and the BJT. The comparison is facilitated by the provision of typical parameter values of devices fabricated with modern process technologies. Following a study of biasing methods employed in IC amplifier design (Section 6.3), and some basic background material for the analysis of high- frequency amplifier response (Section 6.4), the various configurations of single-stage IC amplifiers are presented in a systematic manner. In each case, the M O S circuit is presented first. Some transi...

See more

The list of books you might like

Upgrade Premium
Most books are stored in the elastic cloud where traffic is expensive. For this reason, we have a limit on daily download.
DMCA & Copyright: Dear all, most of the website is community built, users are uploading hundred of books everyday, which makes really hard for us to identify copyrighted material, please contact us if you want any material removed.
Copyright @ PDFdrive.to, 2022 | We love our users