Men of Letters Within the Passes Guanzhong Literati in Chinese History, 907–1911 Harvard East Asian Monographs 305 Men of Letters Within the Passes Guanzhong Literati in Chinese History, 907–1911 Chang Woei Ong Published by the Harvard University Asia Center Distributed by Harvard University Press Cambridge (Massachusetts) and London 2008 © 2008 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College Printed in the United States of America The Harvard University Asia Center publishes a monograph series and, in coordination with the Fairbank Center for Chinese Studies, the Korea Institute, the Reischauer Institute of Japanese Studies, and other faculties and institutes, administers research projects designed to further schol- arly understanding of China, Japan, Vietnam, Korea, and other Asian countries. The Center also sponsors projects addressing multidisciplinary and regional issues in Asia. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ong, Chang Woei, 1970– Men of letters within the passes : Guanzhong literati in Chinese history, 907–1911 / Chang Woei Ong. p. cm. -- (Harvard East Asian monographs : 305) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-674-03170-8 (alk. paper) 1. Intellectuals--China--Shaanxi Sheng--History. 2. Group identity--China--Shaanxi Sheng. 3. Shaanxi Sheng (China)--History. 4. China--History--960–1644. 5. China--History--Qing dynasty, 1644-1912. I. Title. II. Title: Guanzhong literati in Chinese history, 907–1911. hm728.o55 2008 305.5'52095143--dc22 2008026038 Index by the author Printed on acid-free paper Last figure below indicates year of this printing 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 To my parents, my sister, and my wife, Hwee Ting Acknowledgments The present work is a revision of my 2004 Ph.D. dissertation com- pleted in Harvard University’s Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations. Naturally, I owe a special debt of gratitude to all the teachers at Harvard who guided me in my graduate education and pro- vided me with valuable advice over the duration of this project. In par- ticular, this study could not have come to fruition without the continu- ous support and guidance of Professor Peter Bol. Professor Bol’s enthusiasm for teaching and research has served as an important source of inspiration for me, and I feel honored to be counted among his stu- dents. His integrity as a scholar and teacher sets a standard of excel- lence that I will forever aspire to achieve in my own professional career. In addition, I am deeply indebted to Professor Philip Kuhn and Profes- sor Tu Wei-ming, who carefully guided my academic development dur- ing my years at Harvard. I would also like to acknowledge the encouragement I have received from all my former teachers in Singapore, especially Professor Shu Sinn Whor and Professor Tan Eng Chaw. If it were not for their unwavering support, I may not have received the opportunity to pursue a career in academia. In the Confucian tradition, one’s friends are as important as one’s teachers. My colleagues at the Department of Chinese Studies of the National University of Singapore (NUS) have allowed me to do re- search in a collegial environment. Special thanks goes to Koh Khee viii Acknowledgments Heong, whose work on the local history of Shanxi has inspired me to rethink many issues pertaining to my own work. The warmth and friendship extended to me from colleagues at Shaanxi Normal Univer- sity, especially Professor Chen Xuechao, whom I met during a short visit to Xi’an in November 2006, reconfirmed my initial feeling that fo- cusing on the Guanzhong region would be a wise decision. My classmates at Harvard Alexander Akin, Chen Wen-yi, and Doug- las Skonicki have generously offered their help and advice in one way or another during the writing process. To them I owe my gratitude. And then there are my students. I want to thank my research assis- tants, Lim Yu Fen and Lily Hong Ciyuan, whose hard work allowed me to deliver the manuscript on time. The numerous discussions I had with Goh Kai Ling, Ma Lujing, Ngoi Guat Peng, and Cathy Zhang Jing over the past few years have been exceptionally inspiring. With these wonderful students, I often began with an intention to teach but ended up being taught instead. The research for this book was partially funded by the Staff Re- search Support Scheme provided by the Faculty of Arts and Social Sci- ences of NUS. The librarians at the NUS Chinese Library were very helpful in locating the sources that I needed for my research. The edi- tors of the Journal of Song-Yuan Studies and Ming Studies generously granted permission to reuse certain materials from two articles first published within their pages. Finally, the meticulous comments of two anonymous readers helped me to improve the first draft. I gratefully acknowledge their kindness and support. C.W.O. Contents Maps xi Abbreviations xiii Introduction 1 1 The Five Dynasties–Northern Song Period: “A New Beginning” 21 Guanzhong and the Literati During the Tang-Song Transition 23 Changing Relationship Between the Literati and the State 36 The Vision of Zhang Zai’s School 47 2 The Jin-Yuan Period: The “Dark Ages” 76 Alien Rule and the Literati 78 The Zhongzhou ji Cohort, 1175–1215 90 A Century of Diversity, 1200–1300 97 The Rise and Decline of Daoxue, 1250–1368 114 3 The Ming-Qing Period: The “Renaissance” 132 Crisis and Opportunity 135 The Formation of an “Unofficial” Literati Community, 1450–1500 150 Multiple Uses of Zhang Zai’s Legacy, 1500–1600 158 Feng Congwu and the Construction of Guanxue, 1596–1627 167 The Unity of Essence (ti) and Application (yong), 1644–1911 178 x Contents Conclusion 203 Reference Matter Character List 215 Bibliography 227 Index 251