Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the Author. ‘A Performance of Appearance’: Men, Masculinities and Appearance Medicine A thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Sociology Massey University, Albany, New Zealand. Rhona Winnington 2012 i Abstract Masculinity, masculine work places and masculine grooming are all changing. Men of the twenty-first century are experiencing a deconstruction of traditional hegemonic masculinity (Connell, 1995), as the deindustrialisation of traditional male work places erode the need for men to present a work ethic based upon physical strength.1 With this erosion of traditional work places, there are changes afoot relocating men, their masculinity and their exterior appearance away from the embedded practices of traditional hegemonic masculinity towards a new ‘performance of appearance’ within contemporary interactive service employment roles. These changes are not merely occurring from free will, but are mediated by marketing trends and the promotion of the masculine body as an objectified resource, through which men can remain visible and successful in contemporary work places. This movement, however, requires a means to facilitate the changes, with the masculine habitus posed as being the vehicle for actualisation. This thesis draws upon my lived and worked experiences as a Registered Nurse within the appearance medicine sector. I explore contemporary masculine beautification, and the potential paradoxical situation of the emergence of a new masculinity associated with a ‘performance of appearance’ within contemporary work places, but achieved through an adherence to practices associated with traditional hegemonic masculinity. Using a web content analysis approach, I explore masculine appearance medicine websites, the services they offer to men and the marketing trends implemented to engage men with this practice. My research produces findings that are both multi-faceted and interrelated. The key outcomes suggest that changes are occurring within the construct of masculinity and that men need to both become aware of, and engage with, their habitus as a facilitator for change. The findings also present the contradictory practice of masculine appearance medicine treatments being marketed through the constraints 1 Traditional hegemonic masculinity is the culturally normative ideal of masculine behaviour (Connell, 2005). ii and comforts of traditional hegemonic practices. My findings suggest that although the construct of masculinity is porous, and a shift in practices is occurring, with a ‘performance of appearance’ emerging as a feature of a new work place masculinity, men still require the comforts provided by traditional hegemonic practices in order to facilitate this change. iii Acknowledgements My satisfaction in completing this thesis disguises the long and emotional journey that has occurred to arrive here intact. There have, of course, been numerous people who have supported me through this time, and I would like to take this opportunity to extend my thanks to them. My thanks, therefore, go to Massey University, the Library staff and the learning consultants, together with my extended family. I would, however, like to thank more specifically my supervisors Assoc. Professor Ann Dupuis and Dr Warwick Tie for their time, guidance and patience through this process. They have been wonderful in supporting me, providing emotional sustenance, practical advice and, above all, a belief that completion was possible. Their support has been resolute, and without whom I would not be where I am today. My second thank you extends to my close family who have been unwavering in their support for me. They have all been so patient and understanding, particularly when the household needs have fallen upon their shoulders. To Steve, my husband, I cannot thank you enough for not only financially supporting me, but for running the house and for ensuring I eat and drink at the right times; to Gemma for your fabulous cooking skills; to Lucy, who has enduring belief in my ability to write and to Polly and Fuchsia for your company. For this support, I am deeply indebted to you all. iv Table of Contents Abstract ii Acknowledgements iv Table of contents v Chapter One 1 Introduction 1 The cultural context of modern masculine grooming 1 My story 3 The aims of the research 4 Statement of research 5 Structure of thesis 6 Chapter Two 9 Men’s appearance medicine: a literature review 9 Part one: The advent of appearance medicine 9 Statistical data: what is happening now? 10 Part two: The theory 17 Habitus and the emergence of a new habitus 17 Body projects 22 The body as a project 23 Capital, physical capital and symbolic violence 28 Masculinities 32 Disciplinary power and the normalising gaze 37 v Conclusion 40 Chapter Three 41 Methodology: the research story 41 Introduction 41 Part one: The research 43 Research question 43 Sample 44 Web content analysis 46 Coding 49 Validity and reliability 50 Part two: Websites 51 An overview of the websites 51 Destination for Men 51 Face of Man 52 Kiora Medi-Spa 53 Maschio Grooming 54 Planet Man Grooming Lounge 55 The Refinery 56 Trampas: The Men’s Room 57 Part three: The emerging themes: an overview 59 Introduction 59 Masculinising the femininity of appearance medicine: masculinities, normalisation, and nostalgia 59 The advancement of machines: power and knowledge in discourse as a means of men’s engagement with appearance medicine 61 Conclusion 62 vi Chapter Four 63 Masculinising the femininity of appearance medicine: masculinities , normalisation, and nostalgia 63 Masculinities: masculinising the femininity of appearance medicine 63 The changing identities of masculinity 65 Masculinity: discourse as a tool for normalisation 74 The generation gap 80 Nostalgia 84 Nostalgia and the traditional barbershop 85 Nostalgia and the military 85 Colonial nostalgia 86 Reflexivity and nostalgia 88 Conclusion 91 Chapter Five 94 Men and machines: power and knowledge in discourse 94 Men and machines 94 Men, attachment theory and machines 95 The use of power and knowledge as a means of engagement for men 97 Knowledge and power 97 Masculinity: language and discourse as power 100 Conclusion 105 Chapter Six 106 Conclusion 106 Introduction 106 The aims and contributions of the thesis 107 Key findings 110 vii Possibilities for further research 113 Final thoughts 113 Bibliography 115 Appendices 129 Appendix A: Sampling 129 Appendix B: Secondary search criteria 134 Appendix C: Coding schedule 136 viii Chapter One “Beauty is a currency system like the gold standard. Like any economy, it is determined by politics, and in the modern age in the West it is the last, best belief system that keeps male dominance intact” (Wolf, 1991, p12). Introduction The cultural context of modern masculine grooming Masculine grooming is changing. The notion that to cut one’s hair, shave and maybe dab on a little aftershave will suffice, no longer applies to men who want to remain at the cutting edge of the modern day work force. Men now have to invest in their appearance, to refine and perfect it according to current social ideals, spending increasing amounts of time and money on lotions, potions and expensive treatment rituals. The results for men are remarkable, furnishing them with a self-worth, self- identity, increased respect and work place participation, all for devoting a little time to improving their grooming routine. Men’s investment in personal grooming, which extends beyond the previous functional tasks, demonstrates that their external appearance may no longer be located within the constraints of traditional hegemonic masculinity. This development in men’s visual appearance informs of an evolving story defining the subjectivity of men, their values, interests and social positioning. Yet, the numerous options available to men to work upon their appearance may provide a platform of empowerment, allowing men to become who they want to be, with them not necessarily conforming to the culturally defined expectations of how they should behave when they reach middle age. This is particularly pertinent as men may no longer be able to rely solely upon their physical strength and courage to maintain a 1