A.R.Jha/MEMSandNanotechnology-BasedSensorsandDevices AU8069_C000 FinalProof page i 8.3.2008 6:13pm CompositorName:BMani MEMS and Nanotechnology-Based Sensors and Devices for Communications, Medical and Aerospace Applications A.R. Jha, Ph.D. A.R.Jha/MEMSandNanotechnology-BasedSensorsandDevices AU8069_C000 FinalProof page ii 8.3.2008 6:13pm CompositorName:BMani CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2008 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-8493-8069-3 (Hardcover) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. 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CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Jha, A. R. MEMS and nanotechnology-based sensors and devices for communications, medical and aerospace applications / A.R. Jha. p. cm. “An Auerbach title.” Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-8493-8069-3 (alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-8493-8069-3 (alk. paper) 1. Microelectromechanical systems. 2. Detectors. 3. Telecommunication--Equipment and supplies. 4. Medical instruments and apparatus. 5. Aerospace engineering--Equipment and supplies. 6. Aeronautics--Equipment and supplies. I. Title. TK7875.J485 2008 620’.5--dc22 2007040799 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com A.R.Jha/MEMSandNanotechnology-BasedSensorsandDevices AU8069_C000 FinalProof page iii 8.3.2008 6:13pm CompositorName:BMani Dedication This book is dedicated to my beloved parents who always encouraged metopursueadvancedresearchanddevelopmentstudiesinthefieldsof science and latest technology for the benefits to mankind. A.R.Jha/MEMSandNanotechnology-BasedSensorsandDevices AU8069_C000 FinalProof page iv 8.3.2008 6:13pm CompositorName:BMani A.R.Jha/MEMSandNanotechnology-BasedSensorsandDevices AU8069_C000 FinalProof page v 8.3.2008 6:13pm CompositorName:BMani Contents Foreword...........................................................................................................xix Preface...............................................................................................................xxi Author.............................................................................................................xxix 1 Highlights and Chronological Developmental History of MEMS Devices Involving Nanotechnology...............................................................1 1.1 Introduction..........................................................................................1 1.2 What Is MEMS?...................................................................................3 1.2.1 Frequently Used Terms in Nanotechnology..............................3 1.2.2 2005 MEMS Industry Overview and Sales Projections for MEMS Devices...................................................................4 1.3 Potential Applications of MEMS Devices in Commercial and Space Systems.................................................................................4 1.3.1 MEMS for Wireless, Base Stations, Satellites, and Nanosatellites.....................................................................5 1.3.1.1 RF-MEMS Amplifier-Switched Filter Bank Capabilities.................................................................6 1.3.1.2 Passive RF-MEMS Components................................7 1.3.2 RF-MEMS Technology for Base Station Requirements............9 1.4 MEMS Technology for Military Systems Applications........................11 1.4.1 Material Requirements for Fabrication of MEMS Devices...................................................................13 1.4.2 Types of Nanostructures and Their Properties........................14 1.4.2.1 Surface Plasmon Resonance......................................16 1.4.2.2 Ceramics for MEMS Sensors...................................17 1.4.3 Fabrication of Critical Elements of a MEMS Device..............17 v A.R.Jha/MEMSandNanotechnology-BasedSensorsandDevices AU8069_C000 FinalProof page vi 8.3.2008 6:13pm CompositorName:BMani vi & 1.4.4 MEMS Technology for Electronic Circuits and Detectors for Military Applications................................19 1.4.4.1 Passive MEMS Devices for Commercial, Military, and Space Applications............................19 1.4.5 Nanotechnology for Armors to Provide Protection to Soldiers.............................................................................20 1.4.6 Nanotechnology-Based Biometric Structures to Monitor Soldier Health....................................................20 1.4.7 Nanomaterials for External Support Muscles and Artificial Muscles for Injured Soldiers on the Battlefield......................21 1.4.8 Robotic Arms for Battlefield Applications.............................21 1.4.9 Portable Radar Using MEMS/Nanotechnology for Military Applications.......................................................22 1.5 MEMS for Commercial, Industrial, Scientific, and Biomedical System Applications.................................................23 1.5.1 Nanotubes and Nanotube Arrays for Various Applications..........................................................................23 1.5.2 MEMS-Based Video Projection System................................24 1.5.3 Nanotechnology for Photovoltaic Solar Cells and 3-D Lithium Ion Microbatteries for MEMS Devices....................25 1.6 MEMS Technology for Hard-Disk Drives........................................26 1.6.1 MEMS Devices for Thermographic Nondestructive Testing..................................................................................27 1.7 MEMS Devices for Uncooled Thermal Imaging Arrays and Cooled Focal Planar Arrays for Various Applications..................28 1.8 Applications of Nanotechnology in IR and Electro-Optical Sensors for Biometric and Security Applications................................29 1.8.1 Nanotechnology-Based Laser Scanning Systems....................30 1.8.2 MEMS-Based Sensors for Detection of Chemical and Biological Threats...........................................................31 1.8.3 Potential Applications of Nanophotonic Sensors and Devices...........................................................................31 1.8.4 MEMS Technology for Photonic Signal Processing and Optical Communications...............................................32 1.9 MEMS Technology for Medical Applications...................................33 1.10 MEMS Technology for Satellite Communications and Space Systems Applications........................................................34 1.11 MEMS Devices for Auto Industry Applications................................36 1.12 MEMS Technology for Aerospace System Applications....................37 1.13 Summary...........................................................................................38 References....................................................................................................39 A.R.Jha/MEMSandNanotechnology-BasedSensorsandDevices AU8069_C000 FinalProof page vii 8.3.2008 6:13pm CompositorName:BMani & vii 2 Potential Actuation Mechanisms, Their Performance Capabilities, and Applications.........................................................................................41 2.1 Introduction........................................................................................41 2.2 Classification of Actuation Mechanisms..............................................43 2.3 Structural Requirements and Performance Capabilities of Electrostatic Actuation Mechanism.................................................43 2.3.1 Electrostatic Actuation Mechanism.........................................43 2.3.1.1 Cantilever Beam Design Requirements....................45 2.3.2 Electrostatic Force Computation.............................................48 2.3.3 Pull-In and Pull-Out Voltage Requirements...........................54 2.3.3.1 Pull-In Voltage.........................................................57 2.3.3.2 Pull-Out Voltage......................................................62 2.3.3.3 Electrostatic Microactuator Configurations for Generating Higher Force and Energy Density Capabilities.................................................65 2.4 Piezoelectric Actuation Mechanism.....................................................66 2.4.1 Structural Material Requirements for Cantilever Beams..........68 2.4.2 Threshold Voltage...................................................................69 2.4.3 Tip Deflection of the Cantilever Beam...................................71 2.4.4 Bending Moment of the Cantilever Beam...............................71 2.4.5 Contact Force Requirements...................................................75 2.5 Electrothermal Actuation Mechanism.................................................78 2.6 Electromagnetic Actuation Mechanism...............................................83 2.6.1 Pull-In and Pull-Out Magnetomotive Forces..........................84 2.6.2 Actuation Force due to Induced Magnetic Force....................85 2.6.2.1 Parametric Trade-Off Computations........................87 2.7 Electrodynamic Actuation Mechanism................................................88 2.8 Electrochemical Actuation Mechanism................................................91 2.8.1 Classification and Major Benefits of CNT..............................92 2.8.2 MWCNT Arrays and Electrochemical Actuator Performance............................................................................92 2.8.3 Fabrication and Material Requirements for the Actuator.........92 2.9 Summary.............................................................................................94 References....................................................................................................95 3 Latest and Unique Methods for Actuation.................................................97 3.1 Introduction........................................................................................97 3.2 Electrostatic Rotary Microactuator with Improved Shaped Design......98 3.2.1 Performance Limitation of Conventional Parallel-Plate Electrodes................................................................................99 3.2.2 ESRM with Tilted Configuration.........................................100 A.R.Jha/MEMSandNanotechnology-BasedSensorsandDevices AU8069_C000 FinalProof page viii 8.3.2008 6:13pm CompositorName:BMani viii & 3.2.3 Requirements for Optimum Shaped Electrodes.....................100 3.2.4 Force Generation Computations of Rotary Actuator with Conventional and Tilted Configurations.......................101 3.2.4.1 Actuation Force Computation for Conventional Configuration.............................102 3.2.4.2 Force Generation Computation for Tilted Configuration.........................................102 3.2.5 Torque-Generating Capability of the Rotary Actuator with Tilted Configuration.....................................................109 3.2.6 Optimum Curve Shape of the Electrodes..............................110 3.2.6.1 Potential Electrode Shapes......................................110 3.2.6.2 Normalized Torque as a Function of Normalized Angular Displacement.....................111 3.2.6.3 Parametric Requirements for Optimum Rotary Microactuator.............................................115 3.3 Unique Microactuator Design for HHD Applications......................118 3.3.1 Introduction..........................................................................118 3.3.2 Benefits and Design Aspects of a Dual-Stage Servomechanism (or MEMS Piggyback Actuator).................119 3.3.2.1 Architecture of a Third-Generation Microactuator.........................................................120 3.3.2.2 Performance Capabilities of the MEMS Piggyback Microactuator........................................120 3.3.3 Force Generation Capability, Displacement Limit, and Mechanical Resonance Frequency Range........................122 3.3.3.1 Electrostatic Force Calculation...............................123 3.3.3.2 Mechanical Resonance Frequency Calculation.............................................................123 3.3.3.3 Electrode Mass Computation.................................125 3.3.3.4 Displacement (x) as a Function of Gap Size (g) and Number of Electrodes (N).........126 3.4 Capabilities of Vertical Comb Array Microactuator...........................127 3.4.1 Structural Requirements and Critical Design Aspects of VCA Actuator...................................................................129 3.4.2 VCAM Performance Comparison with Other Actuators...............................................................................130 3.4.3 Potential Comb Finger Shapes..............................................130 3.5 Capabilities of Bent-Beam Electrothermal Actuators.........................133 3.5.1 Performance Capabilities and Design Configuration of Bent-Beam Electrothermal Actuators................................133 A.R.Jha/MEMSandNanotechnology-BasedSensorsandDevices AU8069_C000 FinalProof page ix 8.3.2008 6:13pm CompositorName:BMani & ix 3.5.2 Brief Description of the BBET Structure..............................134 3.5.3 Input Power Requirements for BBET Actuators...................139 3.6 Summary...........................................................................................140 References..................................................................................................140 4 Packaging, Processing, and Material Requirements for MEMS Devices...................................................................................141 4.1 Introduction......................................................................................141 4.2 Packaging and Fabrication Materials.................................................142 4.2.1 Packaging Material Requirements and Packaging Processes................................................................................144 4.2.1.1 Sealing Methods.....................................................145 4.2.2 Effects of Temperature on Packaging....................................146 4.2.3 Effect of Pressure on Packaging and Device Function...........146 4.2.4 Fabrication Aspects for MEMS Devices Incorporating Nanotechnology....................................................................147 4.2.4.1 Thin-Film Capping Requirements for MEMS Devices................................................149 4.2.4.2 Chip Capping and Bonding Requirements.............149 4.2.4.3 Transition and Feedthrough Requirements for MEMS Devices................................................150 4.2.4.4 Material Requirements for Piezoelectric Actuators................................................................151 4.2.4.5 Material Requirements for Structural Support, Electrodes, and Contact Pads...................153 4.2.4.6 Requirements for Electrodeposition and Electroplating Materials...................................153 4.3 Impact of Environments on MEMS Performance.............................154 4.3.1 Impact of Temperature Variations on Coefficient of Thermal Expansion...........................................................155 4.3.2 Effects of Temperature on Thermal Conductivity of Materials Used in MEMS.................................................156 4.3.3 Special Alloys Best Suited for MEMS Applications...............159 4.3.3.1 Benefits of CE-Alloys in RF/Microwave MEMS Packaging..................................................160 4.3.3.2 Benefits of CE-Alloys for Thermal Backing Plates......................................................................160 4.3.3.3 Benefits of CE-Alloys in Integrated Circuit Assemblies..............................................................161 4.3.4 Bulk Materials Best Suited for Mechanical Design of MEMS Devices.................................................................161