Mechanisms of Vascular Disease A Textbook for Vascular Specialists Robert Fitridge Editor Third Edition 123 Mechanisms of Vascular Disease Robert Fitridge Editor Mechanisms of Vascular Disease A Textbook for Vascular Specialists 3 rd Edition Editor Robert Fitridge Discipline of Surgery The University of Adelaide Adelaide, SA Australia ISBN 978-3-030-43682-7 ISBN 978-3-030-43683-4 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-43683-4 © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2007, 2011, 2020 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. 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This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Contents 1 Vascular Endothelium in Health and Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Ran Wei, Paul M. Kerr, Stephen L. Gust, Raymond Tam, and Frances Plane 2 Pathophysiology of Atherosclerosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Sanuja Fernando, Christina A. Bursill, Stephen J. Nicholls, and Peter J. Psaltis 3 Mechanisms of the Vulnerable Atherosclerotic Plaque and Imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Khizar Rana, Stephen J. Nicholls, and Johan W. Verjans 4 Current and Emerging Therapies for Atherosclerosis . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Adam J. Nelson and Stephen J. Nicholls 5 Pathophysiology of Angiogenesis and Its Role in Vascular Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Nathan K. P. Wong, Emma L. Solly, Christina A. Bursill, Joanne T. M. Tan, and Martin K. C. Ng 6 Vascular Biology of Smooth Muscle Cells and Restenosis . . . . . . . . . 117 Victoria Nankivell, Khalia Primer, Achini Vidanapathirana, Peter Psaltis, and Christina Bursill 7 Vascular Haemodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Shirley Jansen, Michael Lawrence-Brown, Siamak Mishani, Christopher Lagat, Brian Evans, Kurt Liffman, and Ilija D. Šutalo 8 Computational Fluid Dynamics in the Arterial System: Implications for Vascular Disease and Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 Siamak Mishani, Shirley Jansen, Michael Lawrence-Brown, Christopher Lagat, and Brian Evans v vi Contents 9 Physiological Haemostasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Simon McRae 10 Hypercoagulable States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Simon J. McRae 11 Platelets in the Pathogenesis of Vascular Disease and Their Role as a Therapeutic Target . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 James McFadyen and Karlheinz Peter 12 Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm Pathology and Progress Towards a Medical Therapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Joseph V. Moxon, Smriti M. Krishna, Tejas P. Singh, and Jonathan Golledge 13 Pathophysiology and Principles of Management of Hereditary Aneurysmal Aortopathies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 Mèlanie H. A. M. Perik, Aline Verstraeten, and Bart L. Loeys 14 Pathophysiology, Classification and Principles of Management of Acute Aortic Syndromes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 Mark Hamilton 15 Biomarkers in Vascular Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341 Ashraf Cadersa and Ian M. Nordon 16 Pathophysiology and Principles of Management of Vasculitis and Fibromuscular Dysplasia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 Maureen Rischmueller, Sarah Downie-Doyle, and Robert Fitridge 17 Sepsis and Septic Shock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 Benjamin Reddi 18 Pathophysiology of Reperfusion Injury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 Prue Cowled and Robert Fitridge 19 Abdominal Compartment Syndrome and Open Abdomen Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441 Martin Björck 20 Pathophysiology and Management of Limb Compartment Syndromes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455 David Lindström and Carl-Magnus Wahlgren 21 Pathophysiology of Pain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 Stephan A. Schug 22 Post Amputation Pain Syndromes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489 Stephan A. Schug Contents vii 23 Treatment of Neuropathic Pain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505 Stephan A. Schug 24 Pathophysiology of Varicose Veins, Chronic Venous Insufficiency and Venous Ulceration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525 Manj S. Gohel 25 Pathophysiology of Wound Healing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541 Stuart J. Mills, Ben R. Hofma, and Allison J. Cowin 26 Pathophysiology and Principles of Management of the Diabetic Foot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563 Guilherme Pena, David G. Armstrong, Joseph L. Mills, and Robert Fitridge 27 Lymphoedema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593 Matt Waltham and Kristiana Gordon 28 Graft Materials: Present and Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621 Mital Desai and George Hamilton 29 Vascular Graft Infections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653 Mauro Vicaretti 30 Radiation Physics and Biological Effects of Radiation in Vascular Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671 Joseph Dawson and Stephan Haulon 31 Radiation Stewardship: Radiation Exposure, Protection and Safety in Contemporary Endovascular Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695 Joseph Dawson and Stephan Haulon Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731 Abbreviations 18 F-FDG Fluorodeoxyglucose 18 F-FDG PET-CT 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography/ computed tomography 18 F-NaF Sodium fluoride 3 D-IF 3D-image fusion 5 -HT 5-Hydroxytryptamine (also known as serotonin) α-SMA Alpha-smooth muscle actin AAA Abdominal aortic aneurysm AAS Acute aortic syndrome AASV Anterior accessory saphenous veins AAV ANCA-associated vasculitides ABC Automatic brightness control ABCA1 ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 ABCG1 ATP-binding cassette transporter G1 ABI Ankle-brachial index AC Abdominal compliance ACE Angiotensin-converting enzyme ACS Acute coronary syndrome ACS Abdominal compartment syndrome ACT Acceptance and commitment therapy Acta2 Smooth muscle α-actin ACTA2 Actin alpha 2 gene ADA2 Adenosine deaminase-2 ADAMTS13 Disintegrin and metalloprotease with a thrombospondin type 1 motif, member 13 ADAMTS3 Disintegrin and metalloprotease with thrombospondin motifs-3 protease ADP Adenosine diphosphate AGE Advanced glycated end-products AK Above-knee AKI Acute kidney injury ix x Abbreviations ALARA As low as reasonably achievable ALCS Acute limb compartment syndrome AMP Adenosine monophosphate AMPA α-Amino-3 hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole receptors ANA Antinuclear antibodies ANCA Anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody Ang Angiopoietin AngII Angiotensin II Anti-GBM Anti-glomerular basement membrane disease AP Antero-posterior AP-1 Activating protein-1 APC Activated protein C APLAS Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome apoA-I Apolipoprotein A-I apoB Apolipoprotein B ApoE Apolipoprotein E APP Abdominal perfusion pressure ARCL1 Autosomal recessive cutis laxa type 1 ARDS Acute respiratory distress syndrome ASCVD Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease AT Antithrombin ATP Adenosine triphosphate ATS Arterial tortuosity syndrome AVG Arteriovenous grafts AZA Azathioprine BAPN 3-Aminopropionitrile BAV Bicuspid aortic valve BC Boundary conditions BC Bacterial cellulose BCL-2 B-cell lymphoma-2 BCRL Breast cancer-related lymphoedema BD Behcet’s disease BEIR VII Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation VII Committee BEVAR Branched endovascular aneurysm repair BGN Biglycan gene BK Below-knee BKCa Large-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channel BMI Body mass index BMP Bone morphogenetic protein BNC Bacterial nanocellulose BTK Bruton tyrosine kinase BVS Bioresorbable vascular scaffold C-ANCA Cytoplasmic anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody CAA Coronary artery aneurysms CAC Coronary artery calcification Abbreviations xi CAD Coronary artery disease CAD Computer-aided design CAK Cumulative air kerma CAM Calmodulin cAMP Cyclic adenosine monophosphate CBCT Cone-beam CT CBD Cannabidiol CCA Clonal chromosomal abnormalities CCK Cholecystokinin CCL5 C-C motif chemokine ligand 5 CCTA Coronary computed topographic angiography CD36 Cluster of differentiation-36 Cdc42 Cell division cycle 42 CDs Clusters of differentiation CE-MRA Contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance angiography CEA Carotid endarterectomy CEAP Clinical, etiological, anatomical, pathophysiological CEMRI Contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging CETP Cholesteryl ester transfer protein CFD Computational fluid dynamics cGMP Cyclic guanosine monophosphate CGRP Calcitonin gene-related peptide CHCC Chapel Hill Consensus Conference CKD Chronic kidney disease CLI Critical limb ischaemia CMR Cardiac magnetic resonance CNC Cardiac neural crest CNCP Chronic noncancer pain cNOS Constitutive nitric oxide synthase CNS Central nervous system CO Carbon monoxide COX Cyclo-oxygenase COX-1 Cyclooxygenase-1 COX-2 Cyclo-oxygenase-2 CPIs Checkpoint inhibitors CRC Colorectal cancer CRM Crew resource management (CRM) CRP C-Reactive protein CRPS Complex regional pain syndromes CRRETAWAC Cysteine‐arginine‐arginine‐glutamic acid‐threonine‐ alanine‐tryptophan‐cysteine peptide CSE Cystathionine γ-lase CT Computerised tomography CTA Coronary tomography angiography CTLA4 Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4