Mechanical Engineers’ Handbook Mechanical Engineers’ Handbook Third Edition Energy and Power Edited by Myer Kutz JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC. Thisbookisprintedonacid-freepaper.(cid:1)(cid:1) Copyright(cid:2)2006byJohnWiley&Sons,Inc.Allrightsreserved. PublishedbyJohnWiley&Sons,Inc.,Hoboken,NewJersey. PublishedsimultaneouslyinCanada. 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Wileyalsopublishesitsbooksinavarietyofelectronicformats.Somecontentthatappearsinprint maynotbeavailableinelectronicbooks.FormoreinformationaboutWileyproducts,visitourweb siteatwww.wiley.com. LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData: Mechanicalengineers’handbook/editedbyMyerKutz.—3rded. p.cm. Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex. ISBN-13978-0-471-44990-4 ISBN-100-471-44990-3(cloth) 1. Mechanicalengineering—Handbooks,manuals,etc. I. Kutz,Myer. TJ151.M3952005 621—dc22 2005008603 PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 To Arthur and Bess, Tony and Mary-Ann, for all the good times Contents Preface ix Vision Statement xi Contributors xiii PART 1 ENERGY 1 1. Thermophysical Properties of Fluids 3 Peter E. Liley 2. Fluid Mechanics 46 Reuben M. Olson 3. Thermodynamics Fundamentals 94 Adrian Bejan 4. Exergy Analysis, Entropy Generation Minimization, and Constructal Theory 117 Adrian Bejan 5. Heat-Transfer Fundamentals 144 G. P. Peterson 6. Furnaces 211 Carroll Cone 7. Energy Auditing 277 Carl Blumstein and Peter Kuhn 8. Heat Exchangers, Vaporizers, Condensers 295 Joseph W. Palen 9. Heat Pipes 335 Hongbin Ma 10. Air Heating 362 Richard J. Reed 11. Cooling Electronic Equipment 371 Allan Kraus and Avram Bar-Cohen 12. Refrigeration 421 Dennis L. O’Neal 13. Cryogenic Systems 465 Leonard A. Wenzel 14. Indoor Environmental Control 531 Jelena Srebric 15. Thermal Systems Optimization 554 Reinhard Radermacher vii viii Contents PART 2 POWER 573 16. Combustion 575 Eric G. Eddings 17. Gaseous Fuels 614 Richard J. Reed 18. Liquid Fossil Fuels from Petroleum 626 Richard J. Reed 19. Coals, Lignite, Peat 645 James G. Keppeler 20. Solar Energy Applications 663 Jan F. Kreider 21. Geothermal Resources and Technology: An Introduction 702 Peter D. Blair 22. Pumps, Fans, Blowers, and Compressors 717 Keith Marchildon and David Mody 23. Nuclear Power 753 William Kerr and William Updegrove 24. Gas Turbines 779 Harold E. Miller and Todd S. Nemec 25. Wind Turbines 837 Todd S. Nemec 26. Steam Turbines 844 William G. Steltz 27. Internal Combustion Engines 886 Ronald Douglas Matthews 28. Fuel Cells 922 Matthew M. Mench 29. Fluid Power Systems 958 Andrew Alleyene 30. Air Pollution Control Technologies 993 C. A. Miller 31. Water Pollution Control Technology 1022 Carl A. Brunner and J. F. Kreissl Index 1041 Preface The fourth volume of the Third Edition of the Mechanical Engineers’Handbook comprises 32 chapters. The volume begins with a chapter on thermophysical properties of fluids, then coversfundamentalsoffluidmechanics,thermodynamics(includingachapteronexergyand entropy generation minimization), heat transfer, combustion, and furnaces. Additional heat transfertopicsinthisvolumeincludeheatexchangers,heatpipes,airheating,andelectronic equipment cooling. This volume includes chapters on both conventional energy sources– gaseous and liquid fuels, coal, and nuclear—and alternativeenergysources—solar,geother- mal, and fuel cells (in a chapter entirely new to the handbook). There are six chapters on powermachinery:oneonfans,blowers,compressors,andpumps;oneeachongas,wind(in a chapter entirely new to the handbook), and steam turbines; one on internal combustion engines; and one on fluid power. Refrigeration and cryogenics are covered in two chapters. Fourchaptersdealwithenvironmentalissues:energyauditing,indoorenvironmentalcontrol, and airandwaterpollutioncontrol technologies.Achapteronthermalsystemsoptimization rounds out this volume of the handbook. The contributors to this volume include engineers working in industry in the United StatesandCanada,aswellasinU.S.governmentagencies,andbusinessowners,consultants, and academics fromall around the United States.Threecontributors,ReubenOlsen,Carroll Cone,andLeonardWenzel,whosechaptersfirstappearedinpreviouseditions,aredeceased. Their distinguished work survives. ix Vision for the Third Edition Basicengineeringdisciplinesarenotstatic,nomatterhowoldandwellestablishedtheyare. The field of mechanical engineering is no exception. Movement within this broadly based disciplineismultidimensional.Eventheclassicsubjectsonwhichthedisciplinewasfounded, such as mechanics of materials and heat transfer, continue to evolve. Mechanical engineers continue to be heavily involved with disciplines allied to mechanical engineering, such as industrial and manufacturing engineering, which are also constantly evolving. Advances in othermajordisciplines,suchaselectricalandelectronicsengineering,havesignificantimpact on the work of mechanical engineers. New subject areas, suchasneuralnetworks,suddenly become all the rage. Inresponsetothisexciting,dynamicatmosphere,theMechanicalEngineers’Handbook is expanding dramatically, from one volume to four volumes. The third edition not only is incorporating updates and revisions to chapters in the second edition, which was published in1998,butalsoisadding24chaptersonentirelynewsubjectsaswell,incorporatingupdates and revisions to chapters in the Handbook of Materials Selection, which was published in 2002, as well as to chapters in Instrumentation and Control, edited by Chester Nachtigal and published in 1990. The four volumes of the third edition are arranged as follows: Volume I: Materials and Mechanical Design—36 chapters Part 1. Materials—14 chapters Part 2. Mechanical Design—22 chapters Volume II: Instrumentation, Systems, Controls, and MEMS—21 chapters Part 1. Instrumentation—8 chapters Part 2. Systems, Controls, and MEMS—13 chapters Volume III: Manufacturing and Management—24 chapters Part 1. Manufacturing—12 chapters Part 2. Management, Finance, Quality, Law, and Research—12 chapters Volume IV: Energy and Power—31 chapters Part 1: Energy—15 chapters Part 2: Power—16 chapters The mechanical engineering literature is extensive and has been so for a considerable period of time. Many textbooks, reference works, and manuals as well as a substantial number of journals exist. Numerous commercial publishers and professional societies, par- ticularly in the United States and Europe, distribute these materials. The literature grows continuously, as applied mechanicalengineeringresearchfindsnewwaysofdesigning,con- trolling, measuring, making and maintaining things, and monitoring and evaluatingtechnol- ogies, infrastructures,and systems. Most professional-level mechanical engineering publications tend to be specialized, di- rected to the specific needs of particular groups of practitioners. Overall, however, the me- chanical engineering audience isbroad and multidisciplinary.Practitionersworkinavariety of organizations, including institutions of higher learning, design, manufacturing, and con- xi xii Vision for the Third Edition sulting firms as well as federal, state, and local government agencies. A rationale for an expanded general mechanical engineering handbook is that every practitioner, researcher, and bureaucrat cannot be an expert on every topic, especially in so broad and multidiscipli- nary a field, and may need an authoritative professional summary of a subject with which he or she is not intimately familiar. Starting with the first edition, which was published in 1986, our intention has always been that the Mechanical Engineers’Handbook stand at the intersection of textbooks, re- search papers, and design manuals. For example, we want the handbook to help young engineers move from the college classroom to the professional office and laboratory where they may have to deal with issues and problems in areas they have not studied extensively in school. With this expanded third edition, we have produced a practical reference for the me- chanical engineer who is seeking to answer a question, solve a problem, reduce a cost, or improve a systemorfacility. Thehandbook isnot aresearchmonograph.Thechaptersoffer design techniques, illustrate successful applications, or provide guidelines to improving the performance, the life expectancy, the effectiveness, or the usefulness of parts, assemblies, and systems. The purpose is to show readers what options are available in a particular situation and which option they might choose to solve problems at hand. Theaimofthisexpandedhandbookistoserveasasourceofpracticaladvicetoreaders. We hope that the handbook will be the first information resource a practicing engineer consults when faced with a new problem or opportunity—even beforeturning tootherprint sources, even officially sanctioned ones, or to sites on the Internet. (The second edition has been available online on knovel.com.) In each chapter, the reader should feel that he or she is in the hands of an experienced consultant who is providing sensible advice that can lead to beneficial action and results. Can a single handbook, even spread out over four volumes, cover this broad, interdis- ciplinary field? We have designed the third edition of the Mechanical Engineers’Handbook as if it were serving as a core for an Internet-based information source. Many chapters in the handbook point readers to information sources on the Web dealing with the subjects addressed. Furthermore, where appropriate, enough analytical techniques and data are pro- vided to allow the reader to employ a preliminary approach to solving problems. The contributors have written, to the extent their backgrounds and capabilities make possible, in a style that reflects practical discussion informed by real-world experience. We would like readers to feel that they are in the presence of experienced teachers and con- sultantswhoknowaboutthemultiplicityoftechnicalissuesthatimpingeonanytopicwithin mechanicalengineering.Atthesametime,thelevelissuchthatstudentsandrecentgraduates can find the handbook as accessible as experienced engineers.