Measuring Career Anchors and Investigating the Role of Career Anchor Congruence Catherine Ann Steele A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2009 Coventry University in collaboration with the University of Worcester Contents List of figures……………………………………………………………………………. viii List of tables…………………………………………………………………………….. ix Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………….. xi Abstract………………………………………………………………………………….. xii Chapter 1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………. 2 1.1 Introduction…………………………………………………...………………… 2 1.2 Research objectives…………………………………………………………… 3 1.3 Thesis structure………………………………………………………………… 4 Chapter 2 Career theory………………………………………………………………. 8 2.1 The career concept……………………………………………………………. 8 2.1.1 The history of work…………………………………………………… 8 2.1.2 Traditional views……………………………………………………… 9 2.1.3 Reasons for reconceptualisation…………………………………. 10 2.1.4 Current views…………………………………………………………. 14 2.2 Career theory…………………………………………………………………… 16 2.2.1 The internal and external career……………………………………. 16 2.2.2 Career success……………………………………………………….. 17 2.2.3 The role of personality, values and demographics……………….. 19 2.2.3.1 Personality and values…………………………………… 20 2.2.3.2 Gender……………………………………………………….. 23 2.2.3.3 Age…………………………………………………………… 25 2.2.4 Career Models……………………………………………………… 26 2.2.4.1 The theory of work adjustment……………………………. 26 2.2.4.2 Holland’s theory…………………………………………… 27 2.2.4.3 Developmental theories……………………………………. 31 2.2.4.4 The intelligent career……………………………………….. 34 2.2.4.5 The protean career………………………………………… 35 2.2.4.6 Career anchors……………………………………………… 38 2.2.5 Congruence…………………………………………………………… 42 2.2.5.1 Job satisfaction……………………………………………… 43 2.2.5.2 Organisational commitment……………………………… 44 2.2.5.3 Career salience…………………………………………… 45 i 2.3 Career management………………………………………………………… 47 2.3.1 Career management within organisations…………………………. 47 2.3.2 Career self management………………………………………….… 50 2.4 Chapter summary……………………………………………………………. 55 Chapter 3 Career anchors…………………………………………………………….. 55 3.1 Career anchors…………………………………………………………………. 55 3.1.1 History of career anchor development…………………………… 55 3.1.2 What are career anchors?………………………………………… 58 3.1.3 The career anchors in details……………………………………….. 62 3.2 Career anchor measurement………………………………………………… 66 3.2.2 Schein’s proposals…………………………………………………… 66 3.2.3 Career anchor empirical structure………………………………… 68 3.3 Chapter summary and research hypotheses……………………………….. 81 3.3.1 Empirical assessment of the COI………………………………… 81 3.3.2 Distribution of career anchors………………………………………. 82 3.3.3 Matching career anchors to jobs……………………………………. 83 3.3.4 Congruence studies………………………………………………….. 84 Chapter 4 Methodological background………………………………………………. 86 4.1 Research in occupational psychology……………………………………….. 86 4.1.1 Quantitative vs. qualitative………………………………………….. 86 4.1.2 Bridging the gap – theory and practice…………………………….. 87 4.2 Psychometric analysis of the COI……………………………………………. 89 4.2.1 Psychometric theory…………………………………………………. 89 4.2.2 Career anchor distribution…………………………………………… 91 4.3 Examination of the role of congruence………………………………………. 92 4.3.1 Research within organisations……………………………………… 92 4.3.2 Career anchors in organisations……………………………………. 95 4.3.3 Congruence, careers and career anchors…………………………. 96 4.3.4 Measuring congruence………………………………………………. 98 4.3.5 Work related outcomes……………………………………………… 102 4.4 Chapter summary……………………………………………………………… 103 Chapter 5 Empirical assessment of the COI………………………………………... 105 5.1 Empirical assessment of the career orientations inventory……………….. 105 ii 5.2 Methodological theory…………………………………………………………. 107 5.2.1 Factor analysis……………………………………………………….. 107 5.2.1.1 Approaches to factor analysis……………………………. 107 5.2.1.2 Factor analysis assumptions……………………………… 108 5.2.1.3 Factor extraction…………………………………………… 109 5.2.1.4 Factor rotation……………………………………………… 109 5.2.2 Reliability……………………………………………………………… 109 5.2.3 Validity………………………………………………………………… 111 5.3 Method…………………………………………………………………………. 114 5.3.1 Procedure and sample……………………………………………… 114 5.3.1.1 Factor analysis…………………………………………….. 114 5.3.1.2 Test-retest…………………………………………………. 115 5.3.1.3 Stability…………………………………………………….. 115 5.3.1.4 Face validity……………………………………………….. 115 5.3.1.5 Construct validity………………………………………….. 115 5.3.2 Measures…………………………………………………………….. 116 5.4 Results………………………………………………………………………….. 116 5.4.1 Response rate………………………………………………………… 116 5.4.1.1 Factor analysis……………………………………………… 116 5.4.1.2 Test-retest…………………………………………………… 117 5.4.1.3 Stability………………………………………………………. 117 5.4.1.4 Face validity…………………………………………………. 117 5.4.1.5 Construct validity……………………………………………. 119 5.4.2 Factor analysis……………………………………………………….. 119 5.4.2.1 Splitting the sample………………………………………… 119 5.4.2.2 G1 data checking…………………………………………… 120 5.4.2.3 G1 factor extraction………………………………………… 120 5.4.2.4 G2 cross validation of factor structure…………………… 121 5.4.2.5 Factor analysis summary………………………………….. 123 5.4.3 Reliability analysis…………………………………………………… 123 5.4.3.1 Internal consistency………………………………………… 124 5.4.3.2 Test-retest reliability……………………………………….. 124 5.4.3.3 Long term stability analysis………………………………. 125 5.4.3.4 Reliability summary……………………………………….. 127 5.4.4 Validity analysis……………………………………………………… 129 5.4.4.1 Face validity………………………………………………… 130 iii 5.4.4.2 Construct validity…………………………………………… 130 5.4.4.3 Validity summary…………………………………………… 131 5.5 Chapter summary……………………………………………………………… 131 Chapter 6 Prevalence of career anchors……………………………………………. 138 6.1 Introduction to chapter six……………………………………………………. 138 6.1.1 Introduction to MANOVA……………………………………………. 139 6.2 Method…………………………………………………………………………. 140 6.2.1 Procedure and sample……………………………………………… 140 6.3 Results…………………………………………………………………………. 142 6.3.1 Distribution of career anchors………………………………………. 142 6.3.1.1 Highest scoring anchors…………………………………… 143 6.3.1.2 Lowest scoring anchors……………………………………. 143 6.3.1.3 Summary…………………………………………………….. 144 6.3.2 Demographic differences……………………………………………. 146 6.3.2.1 Gender difference…………………………………………... 146 6.3.2.2 Age differences……………………………………………... 147 6.3.2.3 Gender and age interactions……………………………… 147 6.3.2.4 Summary of demographic differences…………………… 151 6.4 Chapter summary…………………………………………………………….. 152 Chapter 7 Context for the fit studies – introduction to the police organisation….. 159 7.1 The UK police service…………………………………………………………. 159 7.1.1 Police staff…………………………………………………………….. 160 7.1.2 Workforce modernisation……………………………………………. 161 7.1.3 Impact of changes to the career concept………………………….. 163 7.2 Police staff career development – existing practices………………………. 163 7.2.1 National schemes……………………………………………………. 163 7.2.2 Issues with police staff career development………………………. 164 7.3 Career anchors, congruence and police staff………………………………. 166 7.3.1 Operations support………………………………………………….. 166 7.3.1.1 Call management centre supervisor (CMCS)…………… 166 7.3.1.2 Communications operator (CO)………………………….. 167 7.3.1.3 Call taker (CT)……………………………………………… 167 7.3.2 Criminal justice support department (CJSD)……………………… 167 7.3.2.1 Caseworker (CS)………………………………………….. 167 iv 7.3.2.2 General support worker (GSW)…………………………… 167 7.3.3 Crime………………………………………………………………….. 167 7.3.3.1 Forensic investigator (FI)………………………………….. 168 7.3.3.2 Community support officer (CSO)………………………… 168 7.3.4 Divisional administration……………………………………………. 168 7.3.4.1 Counter clerk (CC)…………………………………………. 168 7.3.4.2 Public service desk operator (PSD)………………………. 168 7.4 Chapter summary……………………………………………………………… 169 Chapter 8……………………………………………………………………………….. 171 8.1 Chapter introduction…………………………………………………………… 171 8.2 Matching anchors to police staff jobs – expert panel………………………. 171 8.2.1 Method………………………………………………………………… 171 8.2.1.1 Procedure and sample……………………………………. 171 8.2.1.2 The matching process…….……………………………….. 173 8.2.2 Results………………………………………………………………… 173 8.2.3 Expert panel summary………………………………………………. 175 8.3 Developing a measure of job career anchors………………………………. 175 8.3.1 Method………………………………………………………………… 175 8.3.2 Results………………………………………………………………… 176 8.3.2.1 Intercorrelations…………………………………………….. 176 8.3.2.2 Distinguishing between job roles………………………….. 179 8.3.3 Development of a job anchor measure summary………………… 180 8.4 Chapter summary……………………………………………………………… 181 Chapter 9 Career Anchor Congruence………………………………………………. 186 9.1 Introduction to the congruence studies……………………………………… 186 9.1.1 Types of fit to be considered………………………………………... 186 9.1.2 Rationale for hypotheses……………………………………………. 187 9.1.3 Introduction to multiple regression…………………………………. 190 9.2 Method………………………………………………………………………….. 192 9.2.1 Measures……………………………………………………………… 192 9.2.1.1 Control variables……………………………………………. 192 9.2.1.2 Outcome variables…………………………………………. 192 9.2.1.3 Predictor variables…………………………………………. 193 9.2.1.4 Career salience…………………………………………….. 196 v 9.2.2 Objective fit sample and procedure………………………………. 196 9.2.3 Subjective fit sample and procedure………………………………. 196 9.3 Results…………………………………………………………………………. 197 9.3.1 H9.1a Demographics will explain a significant proportion of the variance in job satisfaction………………………………………….. 197 9.3.2 H9.1b Demographics will explain a significant proportion of the variance in organisational commitment……………………………. 202 9.3.3 H9.2a Career anchor congruence will explain a significant proportion of the variance in job satisfaction……………………… 202 9.3.4 H9.2b Career anchor congruence will explain a significant proportion of the variance in organisational commitment……….. 203 9.3.5 H9.3a Career anchors will explain a significant proportion of the variance in job satisfaction………………………………………….. 204 9.3.6 H9.3b Career anchors will explain a significant proportion of the variance in organisational commitment……………………………. 204 9.3.7 H9.4a Congruence will moderate the relationship between career anchors and job satisfaction……………………………….. 205 9.3.8 H9.4b Congruence will moderate the relationship between career anchors and organisational commitment………………….. 206 9.3.9 H9.5a Career salience will moderate the relationship between congruence and job satisfaction……………………………………. 206 9.3.10 H9.5b Career salience will moderate the relationship between congruence and organisational commitment……………………. 208 9.3.11 Objective fit sample summary of results…………………………. 209 9.3.12 Subjective fit sample summary of results………………………… 210 9.4 Chapter summary……………………………………………………………… 210 Chapter 10 Conclusions………………………………………………………………. 216 10.1 Discussion of research findings and limitations…………………………… 216 10.2 Future research………………………………………………………………. 235 10.2.1 Longitudinal study………………………………………………….. 235 10.2.2 Nature of career anchors………………………………………….. 235 10.2.3 Measuring job career anchors……………………………………. 237 10.2.4 Generalisability…………………………………………………….. 237 10.2.5 Application of career anchors…………………………………….. 238 10.3 Contribution to the literature………………………………………………… 238 vi 10.3.1 Empirical analysis of the COI…………………………………….. 238 10.3.2 Prevalence and demographic differences……………………….. 239 10.3.3 Matching career anchors to job roles…………………………….. 240 10.3.4 Congruence…………………………………………………………. 241 10.3.5 Summary of contributions to the literature……………………….. 241 10.4 Implications for practice…………………………………………………….. 241 10.5 Personal reflection…………………………………………………………… 242 Appendices……………………………………………………………………………… 244 Appendix 1 Career history……………………………………………………………. 245 Appendix 2 Career anchor interview process………………………………………. 248 Appendix 3 DeLong’s (1982) version of COI……………………………………….. 250 Appendix 4 Schein’s (1993) version of COI…………………………………………. 253 Appendix 5 Version of COI used here based on Igbaria and Baroudi (1993)…… 256 Appendix 6 List of organisations that participated in empirical analysis of COI… 258 Appendix 7 Career anchor profile……………………………………………………. 259 Appendix 8 Expert panel pack………………………………………………………... 262 Appendix 9 Job anchor questionnaire……………………………………………….. 273 Appendix 10 List of publications……………………………………………………… 276 References……………………………………………………………………………… 278 vii List of Figures Figure 1.1 Map illustrating the structure of this thesis……………………………. 6 Figure 2.1 Changes to working practices and the implications for careers……… 11 Figure 2.2 Holland’s Model of Vocational Preferences……………………………. 28 Figure 4.1 Typology of research approaches in occupational psychology……… 88 Figure 5.1 Questions from the COI lifestyle scale………………………………….. 133 Figure 5.2 Questions from the COI functional expertise scale……………………. 134 Figure 6.1 Gender and age interactions on the GM subscale……………………. 149 Figure 6.1 Gender and age interactions on the SV subscale……………………. 150 Figure 8.1 Differences in job anchor characteristics between jobs………………. 181 Figure 9.1 Models to be tested in the analysis of career anchor congruence….. 190 viii List of Tables Table 2.1 Holland’s Vocational Preferences………………………………………. 28 Table 2.2 Summary of developmental approaches to careers………………….. 32 Table 2.3 Arthur’s career competencies…………………………………………… 35 Table 2.4 Differences between traditional and protean careers………………… 36 Table 2.5 Summary of career model pros and cons in relation to the current career concept………………………………………………………………………… 38 Table 2.6 Definitions of the eight career anchors …………………………..……. 41 Table 3.1 Schein’s initial study structure…………………………………………… 55 Table 3.2 Definitions of the eight generally acknowledged career anchors ….. 59 Table 3.3 Correlations between Career Anchors and Super’s Work Value scales from Brindle and Whapham (2003b)……………………………………….. 71 Table 3.4 Schein’s predictions for changes in the popularity of career anchors from Schein (1996)…………………………………………………………………… 73 Table 3.5 Summary of research done on the structure of the model to date….. 77 Table 5.1 Summary of studies on the psychometric properties of the COI…….. 106 Table 5.2 Reliability coefficients of career values and preferences measures… 111 Table 5.3 Factor Analysis Sample: Demographic Details (n=658)……………… 118 Table 5.4 Total Variance Explained by Factors (G1)……………………………... 121 Table 5.5 Results of Principal Axis Factoring (G1)……………………………….. 122 Table 5.6 Number and percentage of items with their highest loading on the keyed subscale……………………………………………………………………….. 123 Table 5.7 Mean loadings of the represented subscale items……………………. 123 Table 5.8 Cronbach alpha reliabilities of each subscale (G1 and G2)………….. 125 Table 5.9 Test retest reliability coefficients………………………………………… 125 Table 5.10 Reliability coefficients for test retest with two week and 12 month delay……………………………………………………………………………………. 126 Table 5.11 Long term stability sample significant life events…………………… 127 Table 5.12 Correlation between career anchors and Super’s work values scales (from Brindle & Whapham, 2003b)…………………………………………. 129 Table 5.13 Face validity frequency data…………………………………………… 130 Table 5.14 Correlations between COI and WVQ subscales…………………….. 130 Table 6.1 Chapter 6 analysis sample: demographic details (n=658)…………… 141 Table 6.2 Schein’s predictions for changes in the popularity of career anchors…….. 142 Table 6.3 Percentages of highest and lowest scoring anchors for each participant from this and previous studies…………………………………………. 144 ix