Maya and Catholic Cultures in Crisis University Press of Florida Florida A&M University, Tallahassee Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton Florida Gulf Coast University, Ft. Myers Florida International University, Miami Florida State University, Tallahassee New College of Florida, Sarasota University of Central Florida, Orlando University of Florida, Gainesville University of North Florida, Jacksonville University of South Florida, Tampa University of West Florida, Pensacola The Maya Crisis Maya and Catholic Cultures in Crisis • John D. Early • • • • University Press of Florida Gainesville · Tallahassee · Tampa · Boca Raton Pensacola · Orlando · Miami · Jacksonville · Ft. Myers · Sarasota Copyright 2012 by John D. Early All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America. This book is printed on Glatfelter Natures Book, a paper certified under the standards of the Forestry Stewardship Council (FSC). It is a recycled stock that contains 30 percent post-consumer waste and is acid-free. The publication of this book was funded in part by a grant from the Department of Anthropology at Florida Atlantic University. This book may be available in an electronic edition. 17 16 15 14 13 12 6 5 4 3 2 1 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Early, John D. Maya and Catholic cultures in crisis / John D. Early. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-8130-4013-4 (alk. paper) 1. Mayas—Religion. 2. Mayas—Rites and ceremonies. 3. Maya cosmology. 4. Indian Catholics—Latin America—History. 5. Catholic Church—Missions—Latin America— History. 6. Christianity and culture—Latin America. 7. Christianity and other religions—Latin America. I. Title. F1435.3.R3E36 2012 299.7'842—dc23 2012001057 University Press of Florida 15 Northwest 15th Street Gainesville, FL 32611-2079 http://www.upf.com Contents List of Illustrations vii List of Tables ix Preface xi List of Abbreviations xv part i. introduction  1. The Research 3 part ii. the background of the crisis in maya communities at mid-twentieth century  2. The Traditional Maya Worldview as Influenced by Later Evangelization 11 3. Retention of Maya Culture through Periods of Domination 35 4. Growing Inability of Maya Communities to Provide Subsistence 49 5. Long-Standing Strains within Maya Communities 62 6. The Maya Crisis and the Search for Answers 72 part iii. renewed efforts of the catholic church in maya communities  7. Worldview of Tridentine Catholicism 87 8. Presentation and Maya Reception of the Tridentine Worldview 99 part iv. crisis within the catholic worldview  9. Beyond Tridentine Belief and Ritual: Worldview of Vatican Council II 123 10.Crisis and Reaction in Latin America: The Liberation Movement 133 11. Maya Dioceses Reorganize for Action Catholicism 145 12.Maya Communities Organize for Social Action 160 part v. liberation consciousness assisted by biblical reflection  13.The Bible and Its Worldview as a Cultural Document 177 14.Methods of Reflecting on the Bible 189 15.Biblical Reflections in Maya Communities 199 16.Biblical Reflections in Lacandón Migrant Communities 216 part vi. the worldviews of insurgency and counterinsurgency  17.Guatemala: The Role of the Maya in the Worldview of Marxist Insurgency 235 18.Guatemala: The Maya in the Military’s Worldview of Counterinsurgency 249 19.Militarization in Guatemala 262 20.Chiapas: The Role of the Maya in the Worldview of the Zapatista Insurgency 273 21.Militarization in Chiapas 293 part vii. the impact of the maya crisis on the worldviews of pastoral workers  22.Two Pastoral Workers Evolve 315 23.Social Justice by Sacramental Observance 331 24.Social Justice by Maya Empowerment 347 25.Social Justice by Armed Rebellion 361 26.Liberation Catholicism: Its Relation to the Morality of Armed Rebellion 375 part viii. the search for a revitalized maya worldview  27.Choices Faced by Catholic Maya in a Turbulent Society 395 28.A Bishop’s Evolving Worldview 408 29.The Movement for a Maya Christianity 430 part ix. conclusion  30.A Look Backward and Forward 451 Notes 461 Bibliography 465 Index 487 Illustrations Figures 3.1. Early socialization in Maya worldview 44 4.1. View of Santiago Atitlán and the San Pedro volcano 55 4.2. Milpas on side of San Pedro volcano 56 4.3. Erosion on slope of San Pedro volcano 57 4.4. Milpa on a mountainside in highland Chiapas 57 4.5. Departure for coastal plantations 60 5.1. Cofrade drinking cane liquor 67 6.1. Severe case of malnutrition, front view 76 6.2. Severe case of malnutrition, back view 76 6.3. Malnutrition patients 77 6.4. Malnutrition patients 77 6.5. Funeral of small child 78 6.6. Funeral of an adult 78 12.1. Father Stafford in Atiteco dress 163 12.2. Father Carlin washes the feet of cofrades 163 12.3. Poster for two literacy lessons (cartela) 165 12.4. Dr. Elizabeth Nick, Director of Radio Schools 167 12.5. Graduation Day 167 12.6. A Montessori student 168 13.1. The biblical pattern 180 22.1. The dynamo nun 316 22.2. Cooperative truck 326 23.1. Shrine to Father Rother 337 23.2. Sculpted image of Father Rother 338 23.3. Inscription at the foot of the shrine 338 24.1. Father Ricardo Falla 354 25.1. Fernando Hoyos 367 26.1. Guadalupe procession and protest march 388 26.2. A community group with their placard 389 26.3. Guadalupe image on the Mexican flag 389 26.4. A placard 389 26.5. A placard 390 26.6. A placard 390 28.1. Bishop Ruíz García 422 Maps 1. Chiapas, Mexico, with Its Three Catholic Dioceses; and Guatemala, with Its Twenty-Two Departments Comprising Fourteen Dioceses, Two Archdioceses, and Two Vicariates 5 2. Some Maya Communities in the Chiapas Highlands 100 3. Some Maya Communities in the Guatemalan Western Highlands 101 4. The Lacandón Region of Chiapas 217 Tables 3.1.Approximate Size and Ratio of Spanish and Maya Populations, Guatemala, 1550–1680 40 4.1.Rough Estimates of the Guatemalan Maya Population and Percent Average Annual Rates of Increase, 1520–2002 53 4.2.Household Agricultural Production Units by Size of Holdings and Percentage of National Agricultural Lands, Rural Guatemala, 1950, 1973 58 6.1.Life Table Functions, Santiago Atitlán, 1940–1969 75 10.1.Structure of the Liberation Movement 137