INDEX PREFACE..............................................................................................................................................3 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................................ CHAPTER 1.........................................................................................................................................8 THE AMERICAN POLICY TOWARDS ITALY: ENRICO MATTEI AND THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA......................................................................................................................................8 1.1:American policy towards Italy in the postwar settlement: Truman and the Communist threat...........................................................................................................................................................8 1.1.2: American policy towards Italy in the postwar settlement: Clare Boothe Luce, NSC 5411/2 and the 1953's national elections.............................................................................................................................13 1.2: Enrico Mattei as an element of disturbance..................................................................................23 1.3: The Italian petroleum legislation in the 1950s...............................................................................28 1.4: The creation of “Ente nazionale idrocarburi” …..........................................................................33 1.5: To exit the Po Valley: the troubled experience in Sicily................................................................37 1.6: Enrico Mattei, Giovanni Gronchi and the Eisenhower administration: USA faces oil problems in Italy................................................................................................................................................................46 CHAPTER 2............................................................................................................................................56 THE “NEO-ATLANTICISM” AND ENI'S “PARRALLEL DIPLOMACY” IN THE UNITES STATES' PERCEPTION.............................................................................................................................................56 2.1: Italian Foreign Policy between “Europeism” and “Mediterraneanism”....................................56 2.1.2: The “Neo-Atlantic” Foreign Policy and the contrast between “Atlanticists” and “Neo- Atlanticists”..................................................................................................................................................61 2.2: Gronchi's and Mattei's simultaneous initiatives: the “Iranian phase”.......................................65 2.3: Mattei and the “Soviet phase”.......................................................................................................77 CHAPTER 3...........................................................................................................................................86 MATTEI IN SAUDI ARABIA..............................................................................................................86 3.1:The evolution of the Saudi oil industry: Saudi Arabia as the American Bulwark....................86 3.2: Italy's return to Saudi Arabia........................................................................................................93 3.3: Italy and Saudi Arabia: following the Iranian example..............................................................98 3.4: ENI' s interest in the “Neutral Zone” …......................................................................................107 3.5: The rise of Shaikh Abdullah Tariki: the stalemate of negotiations............................................ 111 3.6: The failure of the “SIRIP” formula...............................................................................................118 CONCLUSIONS................................................................................................................................................... Appendix I............................................................................................................................................................. Maps....................................................................................................................................................................... Bibliography.......................................................................................................................................................... PREFACE Written by a university student, this thesis is addressed to all who wish to review the Italian interests and national aspirations during the economic recovery following the end of WWI. The dissertation is addressed also to those who believe Enrico Mattei deserved a special mention for having played a decisive role in this process. What I have tried to do is to reflect on the complicate relationship between Italy, the United States and the President of the National Italian Petroleum Company. Chapter 1 begins with a significant issue of the post-war recovery period: the American fear of a Communist infiltration across Italy. Not that I have the pretention of writing a history of the Communist threat in the Fifities; rather I focused on the frictions that emerged between the Italian government and the USA due to the initiatives of Mattei both in the domestic politics and in the national oil industry. Mattei, while interfering with the democratic mechanisms by means of clientelism and corruption, repeatedly tried to get the American oil companies out of the more promising areas of the national territory. He could enjoy long periods of open political support and tolerance despite his elusive actions. Chapter 2 argues that, at a certain point, and especially thanks to the revenues produced by the exploitation of methane, ENI's clout became so pervasive that the Agency became able to formulate its own foreign strategy. Mattei could used this impressive power to act as a unconventional foreign Minister who used to pursue a sort of “parallel diplomacy”, alternative to the official one. The analysis of ENI's “parallel diplomacy” follows two main trajectories: first, we concentrate on the “Iranian phase” (the period of the ENI-NIOC agreement) and second, we focus on the “Soviet phase” (the 1960's agreements). Chapter 3 deals with ENI's protracted negotiations in Saudi Arabia from 1956 to 1962. The venture in the Arabian peninsula will also serve as a case-study to depict a more complete description of the relationship with the United States. I have enjoyed the advantages of writing this thesis at the Pomezia Archives where I was surrounded by persons whose knowledge and experience of Mattei are greater than mine. There is no way of acknowledging my debts to ENI's archivists Anna Landolfi and Lucia Nardi. I wish to thank also Margherita Martelli (Archivio Centrale di Stato) and Fabio (Istituto per l'Oriente Alfonso Nallino) for their sincere support and precious advices. MATTEI CHALLENGES THE OIL CARTEL: THE ENI IN SAUDI ARABIA (1956-1962) “La principale schiavitù dell'economia italiana si chiama petrolio: per 360 giorni ogni anno tutte le nostre automobili, le nostre navi, i nostri aeroplani, tutti i motori in movimento in Italia, tutte le fabbriche che consumano idrocarburi, sono alla mercé del cartello internazionale del petrolio, la sesta potenza mondiale”1. INTRODUCTION The Second World War and, after, the Cold War have transformed petroleum in the principal vehicle to reach global hegemony. The British Government became aware of this development at the start of the century when it decided to substitute carbon with oil as the main propeller of the Royal Navy even though the United Kingdom was a country with enormous reserves of carbon. The promoter of the reconversion was Admiral Winston Churchill. At disposal of the United Kingdom for oil's research and exploitation there were the massive deposits discovered by William Knox D'Arcy at the beginning of the century. The property of those oil beds belonged to the Anglo- Iranian Oil Company (A.I.O.C). Churchill was smart to persuade the British government to acquire shares of the Company up to the absolute majority in order to be able to run the business in a 1L'Unità, “Che cosa significa per gli Italiani un litro di benzina”, 1956, Article by Felice Chilanti. Fondo Giovanni Gronchi. Serie: Notizie stampa political way. At that time, the USA were both the first producer and consumer of oil. But its interests were limited to Central and South America, especially Mexico and Venezuela. The Middle East was still regarded as a suburban area: only three countries - Iran, Iraq and Saudi Arabia – used to treat petroleum and its derivatives. In the course of the Second World War, the USA provided 90% of the petroleum necessary to carry out civil and military activities, accelerating the consumption of national resources2. When the War went through the critical stage, it upset all these settled patterns. For the first time in the history of the United States, the security that comes out from an apparently unlimited source of energy, was shaken at its foundations. On January 1943, Harold Ickes, the director of PAW (Petroleum Administration for War) wrote an article titled “We Are Running Out of Oil”. The following year he held a conference at the Chicago Council on Foreign Relations (December the 8th , 1944): in this circumstance he argued that the United States' national security depended on unlimited source of oil outside the national territory. He also affirmed that the United States' government should have been excluded from any stage of the oil business, leaving the whole matter in the hands of the private enterprise3. This new situation imposed a shift in the oil policy leading to the formulation of the “Conservation theory”, that in synthesis forecasts a gradual reduction in the exploitation of national reserves and a progressive intensification of research activities in the promising countries of the Middle East. Thus, on February the 14th , 1945, President Roosvelt met King Ibn Saud of Saudi 2Leonardo Maugeri, “L'arma del petrolio”. Loggia de' Lanzi, Firenze, 1994 p.13-23 3Nico Perrone, “Mattei, il nemico italiano”, Leonardo Editore s.r.l, 1989, Milano, p.32 Arabia to talk about the impressive oilfields that American companies were ready to exploit in the Arabian Peninsula. Soon after the talks, Saudi Arabia became a key element within US oil strategy, while Washington government “opened the path as the so called solidification of its interests in the region, promoting a joint efforts of its official and unofficial diplomacy”4 . In the following years the American major oil companies signed a large number of trusts agreements, enveloping Middle East and the Persian Gulf in their tight net. Acting in coordination with Arab national governments the Americans openly supported local regimes, often against the will of the populations. Generally, the tool used to persuade these governments consisted in the gradual increase of the royalties in the Arabic coffers. To a large extent this is the reason why, during the Cold War, “the so called 'Seven Sisters' were perceived as the last imperialist stronghold in the region, and one of the main target of the young anti colonialist movements”5. In 1951 the oil world was briefly but intensively shaken when the Iranian Parliament approved the nationalization of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company6. The nationalist Prime Minister, Mohammad Mossadegh, started a long tug-of war with the Western governments and the oil companies, which reacted pronto by enforcing a severe embargo on Iranian oil. Supported by the Western countries, the Shah Muhammad Reza Pahlavi dismissed Mossadegh and revived the Western presence in his country's oil market through the establishment of N.I.O.C, a consortium composed by the British Petroleum, the SHELL, five American “sisters” and the French Compagnie des 4Matteo Pizzigallo, “Diplomazia parallela e politica petrolifera nell'Italia del secondo dopoguerra”, p.328 in “Il Mediterraneo nella politica estera italiana”, Massimo de Leonardis, il Mulino, Bologna, 2003 5IBIDEM. On this argument see also Daniele Pozzi, “Dai Gatti selvatici al cane a sei zampe”, Marsilio, Venezia, 2009 p.189-195 6Georg Meyr, “La crisi petrolifera anglo-iraniana del 1951-1954. Mossadeq tra Londra e Washington”, Ponte delle Grazie, Firenze, 1994 petroles. In February 1953, the ENI was officially established. Almost simultaneously, a series of global dynamics was set in motion, leading to a wide alteration of the oil system's equilibrium as it had been shaped after WWII. The Great Britain was the country that suffered the most from the consequences of the war in Europe: “Ormai adagiata su di un passato coloniale difficile da cancellare, La Gran Bretagna rimase sostanzialmente arretrata rispetto all'evolversi dei tempi, conservando strutture neocolonialistiche ormai anacronistiche e insopportabili agli occhi dell'opinione pubblica”7. Thus, right in the moment when the ENI entered into the international scenario, the hegemonic position of the British and (to a minor extent) the French oil companies seemed to be destabilized by a set of political and economic elements, which eventually would have led to the implosion of the whole structure after the 1973 “oil shock”. In other words: “Si trattava di un equilibrio oligopolistico già in crisi, in cui esistevano opportunità per azioni di free riding o finalizzate a inserirsi tra gli incumbents, ma con rischi elevatissimi e possibilità di profitto non prevedibili a priori data l'estrema turbolenza dell'ambiente”8. During the mid-Fifites, the Italian Agency for hydrocarbons (E.N.I), which had focused so far on the exploitation of national methane, embarked on a process of internationalization, reviving the experience of the fascist AGIP, founded in 1926 by Minister Giuseppe Volpi. As stated by a note of the US embassy “for the first time in the Italian economic history, a state-owned company, was at the same time financially viable and 7 IBIDEM 8 Daniele Pozzi, “Dai gatti selvatici al cane a sei zampe”, cit. p. 310 professionally managed”9. The main protagonist of the ENI's success was its President, Enrico Mattei, who emerged as one of the most powerful actor of the Italian industrial sector. Given his impressive economic power he could manipulate large sections of the Parliament operating, since 1953, as a sort of eminence grise. He used to reward generously those who accepted to support him, no matter if they were Socialists or Christian Democrats. Thus, at a first stage, American diplomats expressed the opinion that Mattei could support the Communist and Socialist propaganda to favor the interests of his Agency at the expense of American interests. In 1953 Mattei hoped to be called for to take part in the Abadan consortium after he had loyally respected the British boycott of the Iranian oil. Mattei was well aware of the fact that he had no oil to sell (“petroliere senza petrolio”) and therefore he constantly tried to enter into the exclusive club. The exclusion from the consortium, however, irritated Mattei up to the point that he announced “open war” to the Seven Sisters' trust. Since its very origin, thus, Mattei's strategy was based on the exploitation of the small cracks created in the Anglo-American trust by anti colonial and anti imperialistic movements. He acted aggressively, disappointing and irritating the major oil companies, and thus contributing to create frictions in the post-war settlement between the Italian government and the American leadership. 9 Depatch n° 1237 from American Embassy in Rome to Department of State, “Enrico Mattei and the ENI”, December 16, 1954, ASENI Pomezia, Carte da Archivi esteri, H.II.2 busta 18 Chapter 1: The American policy towards Italy: Enrico Mattei and the United States of America 1.1 American policy towards Italy in the postwar settlement: Truman and the Communist threat At the end of World War II the economic, social and political conditions of Italy were so desperate that a long-lasting period of dependence from American aid was easily foreseeable. The Gross National Product was incredibly inferior to that of 1939 whereas the per capita income was estimated at the 1861's level. The Inflation Index had risen to 2058, against United Kingdom's 157 and France's 376. Two million workers were unemployed (almost 40% in the agricultural sector). The industrial organization was backward, not in any way comparable to that of other countries and therefore not competitive on the international stage, neither in the immediate nor in prospect. The only State presence in the industry was limited to the Institute for Industrial Reconstruction (IRI), set during the Fascist period, which controlled 216 companies in 1945. Given this dramatic situation and until the 1948's national elections, a grave danger existed, in the American perception, that Italy would have fallen under Communist domination, something the US considered to be a tremendous scenario10. The launching of the 1946's Constitution was the last manifested episode of collaboration among antifascists forces and it was rapidly followed by an escalation of tones in view of the forthcoming April's election. The peculiar aspect of this electoral round was the drastic polarization of forces in two opposite arrayments11: on the one hand, the so called “Popular Front” which encompassed both Communists (PCI) and Socialists (PSI). On the other hand, the Christian Democrats (DC) and its allied minor parties (Liberals, Republicans and Social Democrats). The electoral consultation ended up with the Christian Democrats's overwhelming victory (48.5% of votes) while the left parties lost their hopes to guide the future transformation of the Italian society. From mid 1948 to mid 1953 Italy followed a course characterized by increasing domestic stability, economic improvement and a firm pro-Western orientation in foreign affairs. The long period of moderate center government under Prime Minister Alcide De Gasperi, backed by a solid center majority in Parliament, assured a high degree of political stability and consistency of Italy in international affairs. Despite a varying membership of the cabinet, the government was based mainly upon the support of a coalition of the four center parties: Christian Democrats, Republicans, Democratic Socialists and Liberals. During these five years, Italy's prior Foreign Policy goal was to relegitimize the country and the road to legitimacy laid in joining 10National Security Council (NSC) 5411/2 “US Policy towards Italy”, April 15 1954, ASENI Pomezia, Carte da Archivi esteri, H.II.2 busta 18 11G.Sabbatucci e V. Vidotto, “Storia contemporanea. Il Novecento”, Laterza, Bari, 2008 p. 269-270