MATERIALS SELECTION AND APPLICATIONS IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Aravamudhan Raman Chevron Professor Department of Mechanical Engineering Louisiana State University Baton Rouge, LA 70803 Industrial Press, Inc. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Raman, A. (Aravamudhan) Materials selection and applications in mechanical engineering / Aravamudhan Raman. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN 0-831 1-3287-6 1. Mechanical engineering. 2. Materials. I. Title. TJ151.R25 2006 62 1.3--dc .22 2006049038 Industrial Press, Inc. 989 Avenue of the Americas New York. NY 10018 First Printing, 2007 Sponsoring Editor: John Carleo Cover Design: Janet Romano Copyright 0 2007 by Industrial Press Inc., New York. Printed in the United States of America. All rights reserved. This book, or any parts thereof, may not be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form without the permission of the publisher. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Nomenclature and Abbreviations AAA -Aluminum Association of HAZ - Heat Affected Zone (in welds) America HC -Hydrogen Cmcking ABS - Acrylonitrile -Butadiene - HCF - High Cycle Fatigue Styrene (Rubber) HCP - Hexagonal Close Packed AC - Air-Cooled; Alternating Current HDPE - High Density PE ACC - Automatic Can Crusher HE - Heat Exchanger; ACE -AutomaticChalkboard Eraser also - Hydrogen Embrittlement AE -Acoustic Emission HIP -Hot Isostatic Pressing AISI - American Iron and Steel HP -Horse Power Institute HRSIT -High Temperature Reusable ASM - American Society for Metals SurfaceInsulation Tiles ASTM - American Society for Testing HT - High Temperature and Materials ICE -Internal Combustion Engine B -Bainite IGC - InterGranular Corrosion BCC -Body centered Cubic Imp. Str. -Impact Strength, BHN - Brinell Hardness Number (mechanical enexgy to cause BTA - Benzothiazole fracture under impact ) Cermet - Ceramic -Metal composite IN - International Nickel - CFRP - Carbon Fiber Reinforced kA - Archard constant in ftiction Plastic dated wear (Archard Wear CMC -CeramicMatrixComposite rate) CP - CathodicP rotection KF- fatiguestrength reduction factor CTC - Coefticiento f Thermal KIC- Critical stress intensity factor Conductivity in mode1 fracure, Stress CTE - Coefficient of Thermal intensity Fmcture Toughness Expansion ksi -kilo (1000) psi DQN - DiazonaphthoQuinone KT- stress concentration factor DS -Directional Solidification LCF - Low CycleFatigue E -Young’s modulus of elasticity LDPE - Low Density PE EMM - Electmchernical Long. - Longitudinal Micro -Machining LPG - Liquid Petroleum Gas F - ‘Fast’ in SI plot paths M - Martensite FC - Furnace -Cooled MAA - MethAcrylic Acid FCC - Facecentered Cubic ME -Mechanical Engineering FR - Fatigue Ratio in fatigue ME1 - Material Engineering Index FRCI - Fibrous Refractory Composite MEMS -Micro -ElectroMechanical Insulation System - FractureToughness MMC -Metal Matrix Comp osite GB - Grain boundary MPC - Materials Property Chart GFRP - Glass Fiber Reinforced MPE -Material Performance Plastic Efficiency, given in MPI GTE - Gas Turbine Engine MPI - Material PerformanceIndex HAWT -Horizontal Axis Win d MSE - Materials Science and Turbine Engineering xxiv -d,- - Coefficient of Friction under SFE - Stacking Fault Energy dynamic and static conditions SHC -Stress Hydrogen Crac king N - Newton, unit of force SHE - Standard Hydrogen Electrode NDT -Non Destructive Test SI -Satisfadion Index Nicraly -a Ni alloy with Cr,AI, and Y -,,YS,Y.St. -Yield Strength (used for coatings on turbine - Yield strength in compression -p blades) TS S - Tensile Strength, UTS -t, ut P- Pearlite SMA- ShapeMemory Alloy Pa -Pascal, unit of stress SMC -Similar Material Composite; PAN - Poly Aqlo Nitrile (or) Sheet Molding Compound PBS - Poly -Butene Sulfone SS, stst -stainless steel PE - PolyEthylene STA -Solution Treating and Aging PEB -Post Exposure Bake T, Temp. - Temperature YO Eln. - YO Elongation; linear strain TBC - Thermal Barrier Coating x 100, i.e., YO strain to h&re TDN, TD -Ni -Thoria Dispersed PET - PolyE thylene Terephthalate, a Nickel Polyester TEM - Transmission Electron PH - precipitatio n Hardenable Microscope PI - Performance Index T4,T6,etc - Temper Designations for PMMA - PolyMethyl Meih Acrylate Aluminum alloys PMC -PolymerMatrix Composite Ti-6-4, Ti-6A1-4V -Titanium alloy ppt - precipitate containing 6 wt%Al and 4 wtY0 V PR - Property Ratio TM -Tempered Martensite Prop -Property TP - Thermoplastic psi - pound force per square inch Trans - Transverse PSZ -Partially Stabilized Zirconia TS -Thermoset PTCFE - PolyTetra Chloro Fluoro - UCT - Upper Critical Temperature Ethylene UTS VS), S ut - Ultimate Tensile PTFE -Poly Tetra Fluoro Ethylene Strength Veflon) UV - Ultra Violet PVC - PolyVinylChloride VAWT -Vertical Axis Wind Turbine q -notch sensitivity factor W,Wt - Weightageor Weight R - Stress ratio in fatigue WEDWG - WireElectrodeDischaqge RoM - Rule of Mixture MachiningGrinding RPM -Revolutions Per Minute WT -Wind Turbine RT -Room Tempemture WQ -Water -Quenched S - ' Slow' in SI plot paths XRD - X-Ray DifFraction SA -Super Alloy; YSZ -Yttria (Y 203) Stabilized also - StrengtheningA gent Zirconia SAE - Society ofAutomotive Engineem SCC -Stress Corrosion Cracking SCE - Standard Calomel Electrode SCuE - Standard CopperElectrode SEM - Scanning Eledmn Microscope xxv Preface Materials are basic to man’s needs and it is well established that materials and energy are two of the most important entities that move the universe around. There is no economy without engineering, and there is no engineering without materials and energy. Mechanical engineering (ME) dedicates itself to building machines and equipment. In this pursuit, it involves itself in specifying the principles and functionality of machines and equipment. Through new designs, new machines are constantly being synthesized and brought to usage. The efficiency of machines and their useful lives depend upon how successfully the design principles have been deployed in their synthesis and how elegantly the machines have been produced. As the adage goes “without materials, there won’t be any machine,” it therefore derives that “without proper materials and their skillful application, there won’t be any successful and efficient machines.’‘ For efficient and fruitful mechanical engineering or, indeed, for any engineering, it follows that the best and optimum possible materials be sought, processed properly and applied. This necessitates that the mechanical engineers be thoroughly conversant and skillful in selecting, processing, and applying the right kind of materials in the systems they develop and use. Best machines have been designed and built by engineers and scientists before, and this has been accomplished based on past experience of materials’ functionality. However, numerous problems that arose during applications could be traced to materials’ deficiency. Better materials and/or synthesis procedures were adopted to overcome those problems. Although most of these problems are well realized, the engineers are still forced to learn about them through practical experience. The engineering curricula offered in schools, I believe, are not offering adequate venues (courses) to bring all the materials-related information to design, manufacture, and maintenance of equipment. Most engineering curricula include at the basic level only one fundamental course in the fairly vast and exhaustive field of Materials Science and Engineering (MSE), introducing only the basic concepts of MSE. The time allotted in the curricula does not permit adequate coverage of materials engineering topics in the selected programs such as ME, albeit this kind of coverage also is badly needed for the successful basic training of students in the engineering disciplines. With this in mind, many programs around the world have deployed a second course on Engineering Materials, particularly emphasizing the principles of Materials Selection and Application, oriented to engineering. Yet, a large number of other programs are to follow the suit. What should be covered in such a second course is very clear, but how much can be covered adequately is debatable. It is obvious that this should be a course that would follow-up on the first one and be oriented toward design, manufacture, and maintenance in the specific discipline. The second course should verily be of the Materials engineering type and should discuss fully the properties and behavior of materials related to the branch of engineering concerned. The various prime materials that are in use in the specific branch of engineering should be thoroughly introduced; common problems and deficiencies of these materials should be outlined and discussed. It is also very essential to learn how to ... 111 work with these materials and prepare them for optimum use in the various components of the engineering system. Finally, integrating all of the background information available on the various materials, one should be able to select and apply the best possible materials that would suit the requirements posed by design and application. All of the above issues are addressed in the current book that I have developed over a fairly long period of time. Taking on the idea that there should be separate books for different engineering disciplines in similar lines, I have developed the current version mainly for the ME discipline, although this same book can be used with some modifications in a few other engineering branches as well, particularly in the Manufacturing, Chemical, Nuclear and Agricultural Engineering fields. The book is easy to read and many of the chapters can be assigned for self study. This book is divided into seven Parts. It starts out in Part A with the equipment and machines, commonly developed and handled by mechanical engineers, and defines the principles and a simple method of materials selection for mechanical systems. In Part B, the important properties of materials are defined, including the properties that relate to practical problems, such as corrosion, friction, and fracture. Part C introduces the various materials that are commonly used in ME, whereas Part D describes the special processing procedures and problems commonly encountered during operation of mechanical systems, the NDT methods used to identify the problems, and various procedures used to alleviate them. Part E dwells on materials commonly used in selected mechanical components and systems, whereas Part F has many sample Material Selection problems and projects that illustrate the optimum ways of material selection and application in selected prevalent, as well as new and evolving systems. Ample examples of projects undertaken by ME undergraduate students, standing alone or working in groups, are included in Part F. Selected exercises and problems are given at relevant places for students to work out as homework and projects. Finally, Part G is an Appendix that gives a compilation of engineering formulae useful for mechanical engineering, tables carrying units of properties and their conversion from one system to the other, and a listing of important ASTM Standards useful for Materials Selection in ME. I have found students vastly enthusiastic in carrying out project activities. Therefore, the course gives ample room to assign and weigh the project activities appropriately. Introductory homework assignments help to prepare them to tune their materials selection and analysis skills appropriately. A word of caution is in order. The data and information provided in this book are from very many different sources and represent possible values of properties attainable. They should not be construed as absolutely realizable. Data sources and material manufacturers and testers should be consulted wherever needed to obtain the best possible data on materials. An enormous amount of work and analysis has gone into the development of the topics for the projects and I am very fortunate and thankful to have had a large number of outstanding projects done by students in my classes. I have skimmed through some of their fine work and included them in appropriate places. My sincere thanks to Nicholas Dauzat, David Freeman, Berkeleigh Bailey, Guille DeVega, et al., for taking the Materials Selection course seriously, carrying out excellent project studies, and letting me show the world how good their work is. Graduate assistants MI. Rakesh Behera and iv Lucian Zigoneanu provided valuable support in developing sample projects write-up, and several figures and Tables. To Chevron Oil Company, I offer my deepest appreciation for supporting me with financial assistance in the form of a titled professorship and to the Department of Mechanical Engineering at LSU for enabling me to develop the Materials Selection course and this book for it. My thanks are likewise extended to Professor Wanjun Wang for letting me use some of the fine pictures he has taken on several MEMS products he has recently developed. To my other colleagues and early mentors who have helped me in so many different ways, I offer my sincere appreciation and thanks. To three great souls, late Professor Konrad Schubert, who showed me what hard scientific pursuit can bring forth, late Professor Werner Koester, Director of Max-Planck Institute for Metal Research, Stuttgart, Germany, who embraced me and gave tremendous support to be independent, and Professor Tendolkar of I.I.T., Bombay (Mumbai), India, I am eternally indebted. Industrial Press is a staunch supporter of books on machines and Mechanical Engineering and I am fortunate to have this book published by this unit. Robert Weinstein has patiently gone through the entire work and edited it elegantly. John Carleo, the Editorial Director of IP has been a tremendous motivator. To these gentlemen and to others in IP who are responsible in bringing out this book to the public I offer my sincere thanks. Finally, I dedicate this book to the fond memory of my late mother who is teaching me silently and showing me directions for achievements of all kinds. Aravamudhan Raman LSU, Baton Rouge, LA USA June 2006 V Contents (in Brief) Preface ... 111 Contents vii Nomenclature and Abbreviations ix Part A: Materials Selection Principles and Application to Mechanical Engineering 1 Ch. 1. Materials Selection for Mechanical Engineering 3 Ch. 2. The Material Engineering Index (MEI) 13 Ch. 3. Analysis of Materials Performance Efficiency 19 Ch. 4. Specific Example - MPI Analysis for optimum Material Selection for a Steam Turbine Rotor 34 Bibliography for Part A 44 Part B: Properties of Interest in Mechanical Components and Systems 45 a) Mechanical Properties: Ch. 5. Mechanical Properties of Importance in Mechanical 47 Engineering - Tensile and Compressive Properties Ch. 6. Material Properties - Mechanical - 61 Fracture Characteristics and Fracture Toughness Ch. 7. Material Properties - Mechanical - Fatigue 75 Ch. 8. Material Properties - Mechanical - Creep 85 Ch. 9. Material Properties- Mechanical - Friction and Wear 97 Ch. 10. Variation of Mechanical Properties and Residual Stresses 107 b) Physical Properties Ch. 11 . Physical Properties of Interest to Mechanical Engineering - 114 Thermal Properties of Materials Ch. 12. Physical Properties of Interest to Mechanical Engineering - 122 Electrical Properties c) Chemical Properties Ch. 13. Material Properties - Chemical - Surface Properties - 133 Corrosion Bibliography for Part B 157 Part C: Materials used in Mechanical Components and Systems 159 Ch. 14. Mechanical Engineering Materials - Metallic -Ferrous Alloys - 161 Steels, Stainless Steels, and Cast irons Ch. 15. Mechanical Engineering Materials - Metals - Non-ferrous 174 Aluminum, Titanium and Copper Alloys Ch. 16 . Mechanical Engineering Materials- Metallic- Non-Ferrous 184 Alloys - Nickel-, and Cobalt-base Superalloys Ch. 17. Other Metallic Materials Used in Mechanical Engineering 192 Ch. 18. Engineering Ceramics and Polymers 196 Ch. 19. Engineering Materials - Composites 205 Bibliography for Part C 214 vi Part D: Materials Engineering 215 a) Processing Techniques Ch. 20. Mechanical Processing and Thermal Treatments 217 Ch. 21. Materials Processing - Surface Treatments and Case Hardening 227 Ch. 22. Micromanufacturing - Micromachining, Lithography, MEMS 233 b) Materials Handling Ch. 23. Problems with Materials during Use - Manifestation, Detection 248 and Correction Ch. 24. Materials Maintenance - Non-Destructive Testing of Mechanical 256 Components Bibliography for Part D 269 Part E: Materials in Use in Mechanical Components and Systems 271 Ch. 25. Materials Commonly Used for Single Mechanical Engineering 273 Components Ch. 26. Examples of Selection of Materials for Single Components 279 Ch. 27. Materials Selection for Components in Simple Mechanical 288 Systems. 1. Materials Selection for Components of a Windmill 288 2. Lightweight Competitive Mountain Bike 305 Ch. 28. Materials Analysis in Multi-component Mechanical Systems - 326 Materials in Use for Components in Engines of Various Kinds Ch. 29. Materials in Use in Multi-component Mechanical Systems - 360 Pumps Ch. 30. Materials Selection for Selected Thermal Systems 379 Bibliography for Part E 395 Part F: Selected Materials Selection Projects 40 1 Ch. 3 1. Examples for Materials Selection for Single Components 403 Ch. 32. Material Selection for Components in Multi-component 412 Mechanical Systems: Selected Projects Ch. 33. Analysis of Materials Selection for New Mechanical Designs 438 and Systems Automatic Chalkboard Eraser (ACE) 43 8 Automatic Can Crusher (ACC) 449 Ch. 34. Simple Materials Selection Projects 46 1 Mechanical Solar Clothes Dryer 46 1 Bibliography for Part F 482 - Part G: Appendix Useful Tables and Data 485 Important Engineering Formulae 487 Units and Conversion of Units 492 Selected ASTM Standards Useful for Materials Selection 497 Subject Index 5 03 vii Part A Materials Selection Principles and Application to Mechanical Engineering Chapter 1. Materials Selection for Mechanical Engineering Chapter 2. The Material Engineering Index (MEI) Chapter 3. Analysis of Materials Performance Efficiency Chapter 4. Specific Example MPI Analysis for Optimum Material Selection for a Steam Turbine Rotor - Justification of a Special Steel in a Steam Turbine Rotor Bibliography for Part A