Materials Handbook By the same author Encyclopaedia of Scientific Units, Weight and Measures. Their SI Equivalences and Origin Springer, New York, London (2005), xxiv, 848 pages ISBN 978-1-85233-682-0 Materials Handbook: A Concise Desktop Reference Springer, London, New York (2000), xi, 595 pages ISBN 978-1-85233-168-9 (Out of print) Scientific Unit Conversion. A Practical Guide to Metrication, 2nd Edition Springer, London, New York (1999), xvi, 488 pages ISBN 978-1-85233-043-9 (Out of print) Scientific Unit Conversion: A Practical Guide to Metrication Springer, London, Heidelberg (1997), xvi, 456 pages ISBN 978-3-540-76022-1 (Out of print) François Cardarelli Materials Handbook A Concise Desktop Reference 2nd Edition 123 Dr. François Cardarelli, Principal Electrochemist, Materials Materials and Electrochemical Research (MER) Corp. 7960 South Kolb Road Tucson, Arizona 85706 USA phone: +1-520-574-1980 ext. 185 fax: +1-520-574-1983 e-mail: [email protected] URL: www.mercorp.com URL: www.francoiscardarelli.ca Member of ACS, AIChE, ASM, ECS, MAC, MSA, OCQ, SFC and TMS ISBN 978-1-84628-668-1 e-ISBN 978-1-84628-669-8 DOI 10.1007/978-1-84628-669-8 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Cardarelli, Francois, 1966- Materials handbook : a concise desktop reference. - 2nd ed. 1. Materials - Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Title 620.1'1 ISBN-13: 9781846286681 Library of Congress Control Number: 2008921525 © 2000, 2008 Springer-Verlag London Limited Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publishers. The use of registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made. Cover design: eStudio Calamar S.L., Girona, Spain Printed on acid-free paper 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 springer.com Dedication for the First Edition The Materials Handbook: A Concise Desktop Reference is dedicated to my father, Antonio, and my mother, Claudine, to my sister, Elsa, and to my spouse Louise Saint-Amour for their love and support. I want also to express my thanks to my two parents and my uncle Consalvo Cardarelli, which in close collaboration have provided valuable financial support when I was a teenager to contribute to my first fully equipped geological and chemical laboratory and to my personal comprehensive scientific library. This was the starting point of my strong and extensive interest in both science and technology, and excessive consumption of scientific and technical literature. François Cardarelli Dedication for the Second Edition The Materials Handbook: A Concise Desktop Reference is dedicated to my father, Antonio, and my mother, Claudine, to my sister, Elsa, and to my wife Elizabeth I.R. Cardarelli for their love and support. I want also to express my thanks to my two parents and my uncle Consalvo Cardarelli, which in close collaboration have provided valuable financial support when I was a teenager to contribute to my first fully equipped geological and chemical laboratory and to my personal comprehensive scientific library. This was the starting point of my strong and extensive interest in both science and technology, and excessive consumption of scientific and technical literature. François Cardarelli Acknowledgements for the First Edition Mr. Nicholas Pinfield (engineering editor, London), Mr. Jean-Étienne Mittelmann (editor, Paris), Mrs. Alison Jackson (editorial assistant, London), and Mr. Nicolas Wilson (senior production controller, London) are gratefully acknowledged for their valued assistance, patience, and advice. Acknowledgements for the Second Edition Mr. Anthony Doyle (senior engineering editor), Mr. Oliver Jackson (associate engineering editor), and Mr. Nicolas Wilson (editorial coordinator) are gratefully acknowledged for their valued assistance, patience, and advice. Units Policy In this book the only units of measure used for describing physical quantities and properties of materials are those recommended by the Système International d’Unités (SI). For accurate conversion factors between these units and the other non-SI units (e.g., cgs, fps, Imperial, and US customary), please refer to the reference book by the same author: Cardarelli, F. (2005) Encyclopaedia of Scientific Units, Weights, and Measures. Their SI Equivalences and Origins. Springer, London New York. ISBN 978-1-85233-682-1. Author Biography Dr. François Cardarelli (Ph.D.) Born in Paris (France) February 17, 1966 Canadian citizen Academic Background • Ph.D., chemical engineering (Université Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France, 1996) • Postgraduate degree (DEA) in electrochemistry (Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, 1992) • M.Sc. (Maîtrise), physical chemistry (Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, 1991) • B.Sc. (Licence), physical chemistry (Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, 1990) • DEST credits in nuclear sciences and technologies (Conserva- toire National des Arts et Métiers, Paris, 1988) • Associate degree (DEUG B) in geophysics and geology (Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, 1987) • Baccalaureate C (mathematics, physics, and chemistry) (CNED, Versailles, France, 1985) Fields of Professional Activity The author has worked in the following areas (in chronological order) since 1990. (1) Research scientist at the Laboratory of Electrochemistry (Université Pierre & Marie Curie, Paris, France) for the development of a nuclear detector device for electro- chemical experiments involving radiolabeled compounds; (2) research scientist at the Institute of Marine Biogeochemistry (CNRS & École Normale Supérieure, Paris, France) for the environmental monitoring of heavy-metal pollution by electroanalytical techniques; (3) research scientist for the preparation by electrochemistry in molten salts of tantalum protective thin coatings for the chemical-process industries (sponsored by Electricité de France); (4) research scientist for the preparation and characterization of iridium-based industrial electrodes for oxygen evolution in acidic media at the Laboratory of Electrochemical Engineering (Université Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France); (5) registered consultant in chemical and electrochemical engineering (Toulouse, France); (6) battery product leader in the technology department of ARGOTECH Productions, Boucherville (Québec), Canada, in charge of electric-vehicle, stationary, and oil- drilling applications of lithium polymer batteries; (7) materials expert and industrial electrochemist in the lithium department of ARGOTECH Productions, involved in both the metallurgy and processing of lithium metal anodes and the recycling of spent lithium polymer batteries; (8) materials expert and industrial electrochemist in the technology department of AVESTOR, Boucherville (Quebec), Canada, in charge of all strategic raw materials en- tering into the fabrication of lithium polymer batteries, as well as being in charge of the recycling process of spent lithium batteries; (9) principal chemist, materials, in the technology department of RIO TINTO Iron and Tita- nium, Sorel–Tracy (Québec), Canada working on the electrowinning of titanium metal from titania-rich slags and on other novel electrochemical processes; (10) principal electrochemist at Materials and Electrochemical Research (MER) Corp., Tuscon (Arizona, USA) working on the electrowinning of titanium metal powder from composite anodes and other materials related projects. Contents Introduction.................................................................................................................................xxxvii 1 Properties of Materials.................................................................................................................1 1.1 Physical Properties..........................................................................................................1 1.1.1 Mass Density....................................................................................................1 1.1.2 Theoretical Density or X-ray Density of Solids............................................2 1.1.3 Apparent, Bulk, and Tap Densities................................................................2 1.1.4 Specific Weight................................................................................................3 1.1.5 Specific Gravity................................................................................................3 1.1.6 Buoyancy and Archimedes’ Principle............................................................3 1.1.7 Pycnometers for Solids...................................................................................4 1.1.8 Density of Mixtures.........................................................................................5 1.2 Mechanical Properties.....................................................................................................6 1.2.1 Stress and Pressure..........................................................................................7 1.2.2 Strain.................................................................................................................7 1.2.3 Elastic Moduli and Hooke’s Law....................................................................7 1.2.4 The Stress–Strain Curve..................................................................................8 1.2.5 Strain Hardening Exponent..........................................................................11 1.2.6 Hardness.........................................................................................................11 1.2.7 Resilience and Modulus of Resilience.........................................................15 1.2.8 Toughness......................................................................................................15 1.2.9 Maximum Allowable Stress..........................................................................15 1.2.10 Fracture Toughness.......................................................................................16 1.2.11 Brittleness Indices.........................................................................................17 1.2.12 Creep...............................................................................................................17 1.2.13 Ductile-Brittle Transition.............................................................................18 1.2.14 Fatigue............................................................................................................18 1.2.15 Tribological and Lubricating Properties of Solids.....................................19 1.2.15.1 Static Friction Coefficient........................................................19 1.2.15.2 Sliding Friction Coefficient......................................................20 x Contents 1.2.16 Ashby’s Mechanical Performance Indices..................................................21 1.2.17 Order of Magnitude of Mechanical Properties of Solid Materials...........21 1.3 Acoustical Properties....................................................................................................23 1.3.1 Velocity of Sound in Materials....................................................................23 1.3.2 Sound Intensity.............................................................................................23 1.3.3 Attenuation of Sound at a Given Distance from a Source........................24 1.3.4 Damping Capacity of Solids and Loss Factor.............................................24 1.4 Thermal Properties.......................................................................................................25 1.4.1 Molar and Specific Heat Capacities.............................................................25 1.4.2 Coefficients of Thermal Expansion.............................................................26 1.4.3 Volume Expansion on Melting....................................................................27 1.4.4 Thermal Shock Resistance...........................................................................27 1.4.5 Heat Transfer Processes...............................................................................28 1.4.6 Thermal Conductivity..................................................................................28 1.4.7 Thermal Diffusivity.......................................................................................29 1.4.8 Spectral Emissivity........................................................................................30 1.4.9 Temperature and Latent Enthalpies of Fusion, Vaporization, and Sublimation............................................................................................30 1.4.10 Order of Magnitude of Thermal Properties of Materials..........................32 1.5 Optical Properties.........................................................................................................32 1.5.1 Index of Refraction.......................................................................................32 1.5.2 Total Reflection and Critical Angle.............................................................34 1.5.3 Specific and Molar Refraction.....................................................................35 1.5.4 Refractivity....................................................................................................35 1.5.5 Dispersion......................................................................................................35 1.5.6 Coefficient of Dispersion..............................................................................36 1.5.7 Abbe Number................................................................................................36 1.5.8 Temperature Dependence of the Refractive Index....................................36 1.5.9 Anisotropic Materials...................................................................................36 1.5.10 Birefringence.................................................................................................37 1.5.11 Albedo and Reflective Index........................................................................37 1.5.12 Electromagnetic Radiation Spectrum.........................................................38 1.5.13 Order of Magnitude of Optical Properties of Transparent Materials......38 1.5.14 Macroscopic Absorption of Light................................................................39 1.5.14.1 Damping Constant...................................................................39 1.5.14.2 First Law of Absorption (Bouger’s Law)................................39 1.5.14.3 Second Law of Absorption (Beer–Lambert Law)..................40 1.5.14.4 Absorbance or Optical Density..............................................40 1.5.15 Microscopic Absorption and Emission Processes.....................................41 1.5.16 Einstein Coefficients.....................................................................................42 1.5.16.1 Einstein Coefficient of Absorption.........................................42 1.5.16.2 Einstein Coefficient of Spontaneous Emission.....................43 1.5.16.3 Einstein Coefficient of Stimulated Emission.........................44 1.5.16.4 Relation Between Einstein Coefficients.................................44 1.5.16.5 Relations Between Einstein and Extinction Coefficients.....45 1.5.17 Luminescence................................................................................................45 1.5.17.1 Excitation..................................................................................46 1.5.17.2 Internal Conversion.................................................................46 1.5.17.3 Fluorescence.............................................................................46 1.5.17.4 Intercombination.....................................................................46 1.5.17.5 Delayed Fluorescence..............................................................47 1.5.17.6 Phosphorescence.....................................................................47