1496T_fm_i-xxvi 1/6/06 02:56 Page iii Materials Science and Engineering An Introduction 1496T_fm_i-xxvi 1/6/06 22:25 Page v SEVENTH EDITION Materials Science and Engineering An Introduction William D. Callister, Jr. Department of Metallurgical Engineering The University of Utah with special contributions by David G. Rethwisch The University of Iowa John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1496T_fm_i-xxvi 1/11/06 23:05 Page vi Front Cover:A unit cell for diamond (blue-gray spheres represent carbon atoms),which is positioned above the temperature-versus-logarithm pressure phase diagram for carbon;highlighted in blue is the region for which diamond is the stable phase. Back Cover:Atomic structure for graphite;here the gray spheres depict carbon atoms.The region of graphite stability is highlighted in orange on the pressure-temperature phase diagram for carbon, which is situated behind this graphite structure. ACQUISITIONS EDITOR Joseph Hayton MARKETING DIRECTOR Frank Lyman SENIOR PRODUCTION EDITOR Ken Santor SENIOR DESIGNER Kevin Murphy COVER ART Roy Wiemann TEXT DESIGN Michael Jung SENIOR ILLUSTRATION EDITOR Anna Melhorn COMPOSITOR Techbooks/GTS,York,PA ILLUSTRATION STUDIO Techbooks/GTS,York,PA This book was set in 10/12 Times Ten by Techbooks/GTS,York,PA and printed and bound by Quebecor Versailles. The cover was printed by Quebecor. This book is printed on acid free paper. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons,Inc.All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recording,scanning or otherwise,except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act,without either the prior written permission of the Publisher,or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center,222 Rosewood Drive,Danvers,MA 01923,(508)750-8400,fax (508)750-4470.Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department,John Wiley & Sons,Inc.,605 Third Avenue,New York,NY 10158-0012,(212) 850-6011, fax (212) 850-6008,E-Mail:[email protected]. To order books or for customer service please call 1(800)225-5945. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Callister,William D.,1940- Materials science and engineering :an introduction / William D.Callister,Jr.—7th ed. p.cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13:978-0-471-73696-7 (cloth) ISBN-10:0-471-73696-1 (cloth) 1.Materials.I.Title. TA403.C23 2007 620.1’1—dc22 2005054228 Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1496T_fm_i-xxvi 1/6/06 02:56 Page vii Dedicated to my colleagues and friends in Brazil and Spain 1496T_fm_i-xxvi 1/6/06 02:56 Page viii 1496T_fm_i-xxvi 1/6/06 03:19 Page xv Contents LIST OF SYMBOLS xxiii 1. Introduction 1 Learning Objectives 2 1.1 Historical Perspective 2 1.2 Materials Science and Engineering 3 1.3 Why Study Materials Science and Engineering? 5 1.4 Classification of Materials 5 1.5 Advanced Materials 11 1.6 Modern Materials’ Needs 12 References 13 2. Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding 15 Learning Objectives 16 2.1 Introduction 16 ATOMIC STRUCTURE 16 2.2 Fundamental Concepts 16 2.3 Electrons in Atoms 17 2.4 The Periodic Table 23 ATOMIC BONDING IN SOLIDS 24 2.5 Bonding Forces and Energies 24 2.6 Primary Interatomic Bonds 26 2.7 Secondary Bonding or van der Waals Bonding 30 2.8 Molecules 32 Summary 34 Important Terms and Concepts 34 References 35 Questions and Problems 35 3. The Structure of Crystalline Solids 38 Learning Objectives 39 3.1 Introduction 39 CRYSTAL STRUCTURES 39 3.2 Fundamental Concepts 39 3.3 Unit Cells 40 3.4 Metallic Crystal Structures 41 3.5 Density Computations 45 3.6 Polymorphism and Allotropy 46 • xv 1496T_fm_i-xxvi 1/6/06 02:56 Page xvi xvi • Contents 3.7 Crystal Systems 46 5.4 Nonsteady-State Diffusion 114 5.5 Factors That Influence Diffusion 118 CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC POINTS, DIRECTIONS, AND PLANES 49 5.6 Other Diffusion Paths 125 Summary 125 3.8 Point Coordinates 49 Important Terms and Concepts 126 3.9 Crystallographic Directions 51 References 126 3.10 Crystallographic Planes 55 Questions and Problems 126 3.11 Linear and Planar Densities 60 Design Problems 129 3.12 Close-Packed Crystal Structures 61 CRYSTALLINE AND NONCRYSTALLINE 6. Mechanical Properties of Metals 131 MATERIALS 63 3.13 Single Crystals 63 Learning Objectives 132 3.14 Polycrystalline Materials 64 6.1 Introduction 132 3.15 Anisotropy 64 6.2 Concepts of Stress and Strain 133 3.16 X-Ray Diffraction:Determination of ELASTIC DEFORMATION 137 Crystal Structures 66 6.3 Stress-Strain Behavior 137 3.17 Noncrystalline Solids 71 6.4 Anelasticity 140 Summary 72 6.5 Elastic Properties of Materials 141 Important Terms and Concepts 73 References 73 PLASTIC DEFORMATION 143 Questions and Problems 74 6.6 Tensile Properties 144 6.7 True Stress and Strain 151 4. Imperfections in Solids 80 6.8 Elastic Recovery after Plastic Deformation 154 Learning Objectives 81 6.9 Compressive,Shear,and Torsional 4.1 Introduction 81 Deformation 154 POINT DEFECTS 81 6.10 Hardness 155 4.2 Vacancies and Self-Interstitials 81 PROPERTY VARIABILITY AND DESIGN/SAFETY 4.3 Impurities in Solids 83 FACTORS 161 4.4 Specification of Composition 85 6.11 Variability of Material Properties 161 MISCELLANEOUS IMPERFECTIONS 88 6.12 Design/Safety Factors 163 Summary 165 4.5 Dislocations–Linear Defects 88 Important Terms and Concepts 166 4.6 Interfacial Defects 92 References 166 4.7 Bulk or Volume Defects 96 Questions and Problems 166 4.8 Atomic Vibrations 96 Design Problems 172 MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION 97 4.9 General 97 7. Dislocations and Strengthening 4.10 Microscopic Techniques 98 Mechanisms 174 4.11 Grain Size Determination 102 Summary 104 Learning Objectives 175 Important Terms and Concepts 105 7.1 Introduction 175 References 105 DISLOCATIONS AND PLASTIC Questions and Problems 106 DEFORMATION 175 Design Problems 108 7.2 Basic Concepts 175 7.3 Characteristics of Dislocations 178 5. Diffusion 109 7.4 Slip Systems 179 Learning Objectives 110 7.5 Slip in Single Crystals 181 5.1 Introduction 110 7.6 Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline 5.2 Diffusion Mechanisms 111 Materials 185 5.3 Steady-State Diffusion 112 7.7 Deformation by Twinning 185 1496T_fm_i-xxvi 01/10/06 22:13 Page xvii Contents • xvii MECHANISMS OF STRENGTHENING 9.2 Solubility Limit 254 IN METALS 188 9.3 Phases 254 7.8 Strengthening by Grain Size 9.4 Microstructure 255 Reduction 188 9.5 Phase Equilibria 255 7.9 Solid-Solution Strengthening 190 9.6 One-Component (or Unary) Phase 7.10 Strain Hardening 191 Diagrams 256 RECOVERY, RECRYSTALLIZATION, AND GRAIN BINARY PHASE DIAGRAMS 258 GROWTH 194 9.7 Binary Isomorphous Systems 258 7.11 Recovery 195 9.8 Interpretation of Phase Diagrams 260 7.12 Recrystallization 195 9.9 Development of Microstructure in 7.13 Grain Growth 200 Isomorphous Alloys 264 Summary 201 9.10 Mechanical Properties of Isomorphous Important Terms and Concepts 202 Alloys 268 References 202 9.11 Binary Eutectic Systems 269 Questions and Problems 202 9.12 Development of Microstructure in Design Problems 206 Eutectic Alloys 276 9.13 Equilibrium Diagrams Having 8. Failure 207 Intermediate Phases or Compounds 282 Learning Objectives 208 9.14 Eutectic and Peritectic Reactions 284 8.1 Introduction 208 9.15 Congruent Phase FRACTURE 208 Transformations 286 8.2 Fundamentals of Fracture 208 9.16 Ceramic and Ternary Phase 8.3 Ductile Fracture 209 Diagrams 287 8.4 Brittle Fracture 211 9.17 The Gibbs Phase Rule 287 8.5 Principles of Fracture Mechanics 215 THE IRON–CARBON SYSTEM 290 8.6 Impact Fracture Testing 223 9.18 The Iron–Iron Carbide (Fe–Fe C) Phase 3 FATIGUE 227 Diagram 290 8.7 Cyclic Stresses 228 9.19 Development of Microstructure in 8.8 The S–N Curve 229 Iron–Carbon Alloys 293 8.9 Crack Initiation and Propagation 232 9.20 The Influence of Other Alloying 8.10 Factors That Affect Fatigue Life 234 Elements 301 8.11 Environmental Effects 237 Summary 302 Important Terms and Concepts 303 CREEP 238 References 303 8.12 Generalized Creep Behavior 238 Questions and Problems 304 8.13 Stress and Temperature Effects 239 8.14 Data Extrapolation Methods 241 10. Phase Transformations in Metals: 8.15 Alloys for High-Temperature Development of Microstructure Use 242 and Alteration of Mechanical Summary 243 Properties 311 Important Terms and Concepts 245 References 246 Learning Objectives 312 Questions and Problems 246 10.1 Introduction 312 Design Problems 250 PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS 312 9. Phase Diagrams 252 10.2 Basic Concepts 312 10.3 The Kinetics of Phase Learning Objectives 253 Transformations 313 9.1 Introduction 253 10.4 Metastable versus Equilibrium DEFINITIONS AND BASIC CONCEPTS 253 States 324 1496T_fm_i-xxvi 01/10/06 22:13 Page xviii xviii • Contents MICROSTRUCTURAL AND PROPERTY CHANGES IN 12.7 Ceramic Phase Diagrams 439 IRON–CARBON ALLOYS 324 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES 442 10.5 Isothermal Transformation Diagrams 325 12.8 Brittle Fracture of Ceramics 442 10.6 Continuous Cooling Transformation 12.9 Stress–Strain Behavior 447 Diagrams 335 12.10 Mechanisms of Plastic 10.7 Mechanical Behavior of Iron–Carbon Deformation 449 Alloys 339 12.11 Miscellaneous Mechanical 10.8 Tempered Martensite 343 Considerations 451 10.9 Review of Phase Transformations and Summary 453 Mechanical Properties for Iron–Carbon Important Terms and Concepts 454 Alloys 346 References 454 Summary 350 Questions and Problems 455 Important Terms and Concepts 351 Design Problems 459 References 352 Questions and Problems 352 13. Applications and Processing of Design Problems 356 Ceramics 460 11. Applications and Processing of Learning Objectives 461 Metal Alloys 358 13.1 Introduction 461 Learning Objectives 359 TYPES AND APPLICATIONS OF CERAMICS 461 11.1 Introduction 359 13.2 Glasses 461 TYPES OF METAL ALLOYS 359 13.3 Glass–Ceramics 462 11.2 Ferrous Alloys 359 13.4 Clay Products 463 11.3 Nonferrous Alloys 372 13.5 Refractories 464 FABRICATION OF METALS 382 13.6 Abrasives 466 13.7 Cements 467 11.4 Forming Operations 383 13.8 Advanced Ceramics 468 11.5 Casting 384 11.6 Miscellaneous Techniques 386 FABRICATION AND PROCESSING OF THERMAL PROCESSING OF METALS 387 CERAMICS 471 13.9 Fabrication and Processing of Glasses 11.7 Annealing Processes 388 and Glass–Ceramics 471 11.8 Heat Treatment of Steels 390 13.10 Fabrication and Processing of Clay 11.9 Precipitation Hardening 402 Products 476 Summary 407 Important Terms and Concepts 409 13.11 Powder Pressing 481 References 409 13.12 Tape Casting 484 Questions and Problems 410 Summary 484 Design Problems 411 Important Terms and Concepts 486 References 486 Questions and Problems 486 12. Structures and Properties of Design Problem 488 Ceramics 414 Learning Objectives 415 14. Polymer Structures 489 12.1 Introduction 415 Learning Objectives 490 CERAMIC STRUCTURES 415 14.1 Introduction 490 12.2 Crystal Structures 415 14.2 Hydrocarbon Molecules 490 12.3 Silicate Ceramics 426 14.3 Polymer Molecules 492 12.4 Carbon 430 14.4 The Chemistry of Polymer 12.5 Imperfections in Ceramics 434 Molecules 493 12.6 Diffusion in Ionic Materials 438 14.5 Molecular Weight 497 1496T_fm_i-xxvi 01/10/06 22:13 Page xix Contents • xix 14.6 Molecular Shape 500 POLYMER SYNTHESIS AND PROCESSING 560 14.7 Molecular Structure 501 15.20 Polymerization 561 14.8 Molecular Configurations 503 15.21 Polymer Additives 563 14.9 Thermoplastic and Thermosetting 15.22 Forming Techniques for Plastics 565 Polymers 506 15.23 Fabrication of Elastomers 567 14.10 Copolymers 507 15.24 Fabrication of Fibers and Films 568 14.11 Polymer Crystallinity 508 Summary 569 14.12 Polymer Crystals 512 Important Terms and Concepts 571 14.13 Defects in Polymers 514 References 571 14.14 Diffusion in Polymeric Materials 515 Questions and Problems 572 Summary 517 Design Questions 576 Important Terms and Concepts 519 References 519 16. Composites 577 Questions and Problems 519 Learning Objectives 578 15. Characteristics, Applications, and 16.1 Introduction 578 Processing of Polymers 523 PARTICLE-REINFORCED COMPOSITES 580 Learning Objectives 524 16.2 Large-Particle Composites 580 15.1 Introduction 524 16.3 Dispersion-Strengthened Composites 584 MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR OF POLYMERS 524 15.2 Stress–Strain Behavior 524 FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES 585 15.3 Macroscopic Deformation 527 16.4 Influence of Fiber Length 585 15.4 Viscoelastic Deformation 527 16.5 Influence of Fiber Orientation and 15.5 Fracture of Polymers 532 Concentration 586 15.6 Miscellaneous Mechanical 16.6 The Fiber Phase 595 Characteristics 533 16.7 The Matrix Phase 596 16.8 Polymer-Matrix Composites 597 MECHANISMS OF DEFORMATION AND FOR 16.9 Metal-Matrix Composites 603 STRENGTHENING OF POLYMERS 535 16.10 Ceramic-Matrix Composites 605 15.7 Deformation of Semicrystalline 16.11 Carbon–Carbon Composites 606 Polymers 535 16.12 Hybrid Composites 607 15.8 Factors That Influence the Mechanical 16.13 Processing of Fiber-Reinforced Properties of Semicrystalline Composites 607 Polymers 538 15.9 Deformation of Elastomers 541 STRUCTURAL COMPOSITES 610 16.14 Laminar Composites 610 CRYSTALLIZATION, MELTING, AND GLASS 16.15 Sandwich Panels 611 TRANSITION PHENOMENA IN POLYMERS 544 Summary 613 15.10 Crystallization 544 Important Terms and Concepts 615 15.11 Melting 545 References 616 15.12 The Glass Transition 545 Questions and Problems 616 15.13 Melting and Glass Transition Design Problems 619 Temperatures 546 15.14 Factors That Influence Melting and Glass 17. Corrosion and Degradation of Transition Temperatures 547 Materials 621 POLYMER TYPES 549 Learning Objectives 622 15.15 Plastics 549 17.1 Introduction 622 15.16 Elastomers 552 15.17 Fibers 554 CORROSION OF METALS 622 15.18 Miscellaneous Applications 555 17.2 Electrochemical Considerations 623 15.19 Advanced Polymeric Materials 556 17.3 Corrosion Rates 630