AiR cleAn ® WAll PAint 155 bio-bAseD Resins 40 cARtAmelA 88 AkRomiD ® s 40 bio-bAseD soft foAms 40 ccfleX ® 147 Alkemi™ 78 biofibeR™ WheAt 56 celbloc PlUs 149 AlUlife ® 77 biofleX ® 35 cellUcomP ® 56 AlUlight® 104 bio-glAss ® 79 cenotec ® 118 AlUsion™ 78 biogRADe ® 38 chRomicoloR ® 145 Ambient gloW technologY – biomAX ® tPs 37 climAcell® 107 Agt™ 171 biomeR ® 36 cocoDots ® 46 AmoRim ® 51 bioni hYgienic ® 157 coconUt tiles 46 ARbofill ® 56 bioPAR ® 37 coRk 108 ARbofoRm ® 38 bioPlAsttPs ® 37 cURv ® 121 AR-hARD ® 156 blAzestone™ 79 blingcRete 175 d B blUe Angel 91 bUzzisPAce© 84 c DAkotA bURl® 56 bAlsAboARD 86 DAllAstic ® 74 bARkteX® 58 DämmstAtt ® 107 bAtYline ® 84 DigitAlDAWn 171 bAYtUbes ® 120 cAlYmeR™ 102 Dines ® 145 beecoRe ® 96 cAPA ® 66 DolUfleX ® 78 Product bio-bAseD PolYAmiDes 40 cAPRomeR™ 66 DUAl-comPonent ceRAmic foAm 103 DUocel® sic foAm 103 index DURAAiR ® 155 DURAt ® 73 DURiPAnel ® 86 3mesh® 116 e 3XDRY ® 119 A ecogehR ®PlA 35 ecogehR ® WPc 45 ecoPAn ® 87 AccoYA ® 48 ecovio ® 35 ADhesive teXtiles 191 eDilfibeR ® 73 ADmonteR ® 48 elvAnol ® 65 AeRofAbRíX™ 116 enkA ®-moss 152 AeRosil ® 156 enviRez ® 40 AgPURe™ 157 enviRon biocomPosite™ 90 AgRiboARD™ 86 essemPleX™ 127 AgRiPlAst bW 38 eURolight ® 96 AiR cleAn ® cobblestones 155 F G i fAsAl ® 45 glAssshells 80 icestone™ 79 feRRotec 148 globoceR® 113 ingeo™ 35 fibeRteX PAn ® 84 globomet® 113 instAcoUstic cRADle ® 74 fibRil™ 120 gohsenol™ 64 isofloc ® 107 fibRolon ® 45 gReen line ® 55 isolcell ® 90 finefloc ® 107 isolgommA RtA ® 74 fiReclAY ® bottlestone 82 H isolith ® 88 fiRstWooD® 48 isosPAn ® 88 flAmeXX ® Decotech 96 flUPis ® 106 K foAmet™ 104 hAilstone© 80 foAmglAs ® 81 homAsote™ 90 fRontieR cARbon hYbRiX® 98 coRPoRAtion 120 hYPRotect™ 157 keRiDUR ® 73 fsc 91 kovAleX® 45 kRAftPleX ® 87 kUPilkA ® 45 MATERIAL REVOLUTION sAschA PETERs MATERIAL REVOLUTION SUSTAINABLE AND MULTI-PURPOSE MATERIALS FOR DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE BIRkhäUsER BAsEL contents I IntroductIon Sustainable and Multi-functional Industrial materials – The Material Revolution…006 — The Importance of Creative Professionals for Technical Innovation…012 II MAterIALs Bio-based Materials…030 — Biodegradable Materials …060 — Recycling Materials…068 — Lightweight Construction and Insulation Materials…092 — Shape-changing Materials…122 — Multifunctional Materials…140 — Energy-generating and Light- influencing Materials…160 — Sustainable Production Processes…178 III AppendIx About the Author…195 — Index…196 — Biblio- graphy…205 — Selected Publications by the Author…206 — Selected Lectures by the Author…207 1 5 BIO-Based shape-changIng MaterIals MaterIals Bioplastics Based on Polylactic Acid…034 — Bio - Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs)…126 — Shape Memory plastics Based on Polyhydroxybutric Acid…035 — Plastics (SMPs)…127 — Thermo-Bimetals…128 — Bioplastics Based on Thermoplastic Starch…037 — Piezoelectric Ceramics (PECs)…128 — Piezoelectric Bioplastics Based on Cellulose…038 — Bioplastics Plastics (PEPs)…129 — Electroactive Polymers…130 Based on Vegetable Oils…040 — Lignin-based — Buckypaper…131 — Hydrogel…132 Bioplastics…041 — Algae-based Bioplastics…041 — Bioplastics from Animal Sources…042 — Acrylic 6 Glass Derived from Sugar…043 — Natural Rubber…043 MultIfunctIOnal — Wood Polymer Composites (WPC)…044 — Coconut- MaterIals wood Composites…046 — Bamboo…047 — Heat-treated Natural Woods…048 — Thermo-hygro-mechanically Biomimetic Materials…144 — Color and Trans- Compacted Wood (THM)…049 — Cork Polymer Com- parency-changing Materials…145 — Dirt-repellent posites (CPC)…050 — Almond Polymer Composites Surfaces…146 — Electrorheological and Magneto- (APC)…052 — Algae-based Materials…053 — Fungus- rheological Fluids…147 — Phase Change Materials based Materials…054 — Natural Fiber Composites (PCM)…148 — Loam…150 — Moss…151 — Zeo- (NFC)…055 — Linoleum…057 — Bark Cloth Materi- lites…152 — CO2-absorbing Materials…153 — Scent als…058 — Maize Cob Board (MCB)…059 Microcapsules…154 — Nano Titanium Dioxide…154 — Nano Silicon Dioxide…155 — Nano Silver…156 — 2 Nano Gold…157 — Nanopaper…158 — Self-healing BIOdegradaBle Materials…159 MaterIals 7 Water-soluble Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVOH)…064 — energy-generatIng Alkali-soluble Plastics…065 — Polycaprolactone…066 and lIght-InfluencIng MaterIals 3 recyclIng Photovoltaic Materials…164 — Thin-film Solar MaterIals Cells…165 — Multiple Solar Cells…166 — Black Silicon…166 — Green Algae…167 — Thermoelectric Recycling Plastics…072 — Recycling Elastomers…074 Materials…168 — Ferroelectric Polymers…169 — Light- — Recycling Steel…075 — Recycling Copper…076 — emitting and Luminescent Materials…170 — Recycling Aluminum…077 — Recycling Glass…078 Light-emitting Diodes (LEDs)…172 — Organic — Foam Glass…080 — Recycling Solid Surfaces…082 Light-Emitting Diodes (OLEDs)…173 — Multi-touch — Recycling Textiles…083 — Bonded Leather Materi- Films…174 — Retro-reflective Materials…174 — Trans- als…085 — Wood Compound Materials…085 — Wood lucent Materials…175 — Metamaterials…176 Concrete…087 — Paper Made of Organic Waste…088 — Recycling Paper…089 8 sustaInaBle 4 prOductIOn prOcesses lIghtweIght cOnstructIOn and InsulatIOn MaterIals Multi-component Injection Molding…182 — InMold Techniques…182 — Metal Injection Molding…183 Honeycomb Structures…096 — Double-webbed — Incremental Sheet Metal Forming…184 — Free Panels…097 — Stainless Steel Micro-Sandwich…098 Hydroforming…185 — Laser Beam Forming…186 — Carbon Fiber Stone (CFS)…099 — Ultra High- — Arch-faceting…186 — Additive Forming…187 — strength Concrete…099 — Basalt Fiber-reinforced Laser Structuring…187 — 3D Water Jet Cutting…188 Materials…101 — Plastics Refined with Mineral — Multi functional Anodizing…189 — Dry Machin- Particles…102 — Ceramic Foam…103 — Metal ing…189 — Adhesive-free joining…191 Foam…104 — Wood Foam…105 — Paper Foam…106 — Cellulose Flakes…106 — Natural Fiber Insulation…108 — Rigid Polyurethane Foam…110 — Vacuum Insula- tion Panels…110 — Aerogel…111 — Hollow Sphere Structures…113 — Technical Textiles…114 — Spacer Textiles…115 — Membrane Textiles…117 — Nanotex- tiles…118 — Carbon Nanotubes (CNT)…120 — Self- reinforced Thermoplastics…121 6 sUsTAINABLE ANd MULTI-fUNcTIONAL INdUsTRIAL MATERIALs – ThE MATERIAL REVOLUTION Vases made of algae fibers, cell phone casing of tree bark, coffins of almond shells, mosaics of coconuts and bicycle frames of bamboo: These are just some of the most striking examples of a development that will take on a revolutionary character in the near future. Natural materials, recycled industrial materials, and product concepts that are sparing with resources are all gaining ground. The world is seemingly undergoing radical change; or so the ever more frequent environmen- tal problems and the bio-based solutions with a low environmental impact that companies are now touting would lead us to believe. Materials are to be more natural, healthier and more sustainable. Nothing less is at stake than saving our climate, securing our standard of living and creating a basis for life for the next generations. Bicycle frame made of bamboo (Source: Craig Calfee) → p. 047 At the latest since it was recognized that supplies of fossil energy sources will dwindle in the coming decades and many raw materi- als be available in limited amounts only, intensive efforts have been made to find alternatives. The material innovations of the twentieth century, whose creation we largely owed to crude oil, will have lost their significance in a few years. Bakelite® (a duroplastic phenol resin) was used for the housings of the first electrical devices in the 1930s, polyvinylchloride (PVC) for records in the 1950s, polyurethane for body-hugging ski boots in the 1970s, and fiberglass-reinforced plastics for pole vaults. The general consensus was that material innovations with new mechanical properties and functional qualities gave birth to new product solutions. Cell phone casing made of bark cloth (Source: Bark Cloth®) → p. 058 However, the upcoming meteoric advances in the materials sector 7 will no longer focus on developing new functions. Rather, the aim will shift to producing industrial materials whose employment is sparing on resources, material-efficient and does not pose a danger to people. As consumers are becoming increasingly aware of the eco-friendly handling of materials and of thinking in material cycles, investment in sustainable products is a rewarding business. Indeed, in many areas customers even expect eco-friendly materials with multi-purpose properties and the use of sustainable production methods. Ski boot with a “Hytrel® RS” bioplastic shaft (Source: DuPont) Meanwhile the challenges appear to be so immense that political measures need to be taken to accelerate the change. The 2010 Copen- hagen Climate Conference might have failed owing to the opposition of the emerging economies but the western industrial nations, and in particular Europe see there now being an opportunity to combine environmental policy necessities with the economic challenges so as to secure innovation competency. Consequently, the European Union has drawn up the 20–20–20 Climate Change Package, under which energy consumption and emissions are to be cut by 20% by 2020 and simultaneously, regenerative energies are to cover one fifth more of total consumption. Receptacles made of cellulose plastics (Source: Biowert) → p. 038 Companies believe the moment has come to carve out a distinctive image by using new products. For example, the market for bioplastics based on renewable resources such as cornstarch and cellulose, is ex- pected to see an annual expansion of 25–30% in coming years. The chemicals giants and small to mid-sized goods manufacturers have 8 already developed numerous products and the range is increasing constantly. But whether the bio-based and/or biodegradable industrial materials really are climate-neutral has yet to be definitively settled. Generally, we lack reliable information on how many resources, how much water and energy is required in the course of a product life- cycle, from production via transport and use through to disposal. Only gradually are standards and measures emerging that enable objective comparisons to be made. Take the “ecological rucksack”: it has established itself as a means of depicting the total amount of resources needed in the manufacture, use and disposal of a product. It is normally employed for ecological balances together with the carbon footprint, which is the sum of all greenhouse gas emissions produced during a product’s lifecycle, or the “virtual water” measure, in other words, the amount of water needed to produce a product. When measuring the “ecological rucksack” of materials, we talk of factor 5 for polymers. This means that it takes about five kilos of resources to produce one kilo of plastic. As some 85 kilos of resources are needed to produce aluminum and an amazing 500 kilos for copper, recycling can no longer be ignored, especially for these mass materials. It will probably take some time, however, until reliable data on the most important materials exists. Sheet material made of 100 % recycled glass (Source: Coverings Etc) → p. 079 Until such time as we have access to materials that have no negative impact either on the climate or the environment the key aim must be to make the best possible use of existing resources and select the most suitable material for any given purpose. It follows that enhancing material efficiency is a major aim of current research activities. For instance, coating systems in nano- or micro dimensions have been developed that optimize material properties, guarantee them over a longer period, and enable additional features such as high scratch resistance and easy-to-clean properties. Similarly, several manufacturers have pushed forward the develop- ment of materials based on recycled raw materials. Products are now available in almost every industrial material class, which consider- ably extend the use of resources. Metals, plastics and paper made of recycled industrial materials can almost be described as classics. 9 They have recently been joined by new materials made of recycled glass, recycled textiles, or mineral industrial materials, as well as by a collection system. Fungus-based hard foam for packaging (Source: ecovative design) → p. 054 Research is being conducted into new production methods modeled on natural growth processes, which see the creation of material as a biological process. Moreover, agricultural waste products serve to replace conventional components in composite materials, thereby reducing the amount of resources needed. People now even expect materials that do not land on a rubbish dump on completion of their service life but can be used to produce materials for a new product. Lightweight structure, based on metallic hollow spheres (Source: hollomet) → p. 113 Given the long distances products and materials must travel from manufacturer to consumer, low-weight industrial materials and composite materials are gaining importance. Not only do they incur lower energy consumption during road or air transport, they also make assembly and handling easier. In architecture, using lightweight materials translates into less construction work and subsequently less material to realize buildings. Given global warming, those materials with CO2 storing properties will in future assume ever greater importance. Since some 40% of global consumer energy goes on the consumption and operation of buildings, energy-saving potential in the construction industry is enormous. Increasing importance will be attached to improving heat insulation. In this context, those materials that turn sunlight directly into electricity, can store heat and moisture and can contribute to natural air conditioning are of particular interest to designers and architects. 10 With its entry to the 2007 and 2009 Solar Decathlons in Washington, Darmstadt Technical University proved what immense opportunities can be tapped by using innovative materials and new construction techniques. The team headed by Prof. Hegger employed a combina- tion of vacuum insulating panels, cutting-edge solar technology, and climate-altering phase-change materials in a house that produced more energy than it consumed, and won first prize in the competition. Team Germany, 2009 Solar Decathlon (Source: TU Darmstadt) → p. 149 While some manufacturers seek to reduce the environmental impact of their products by using renewable and natural resources, others are adopting a totally different approach. They develop materials that boast other qualities, alongside their mechanical functions. These in- clude the ability to respond to environmental influences by changing shape or color, to store water while retaining a dry surface, or to repel soiling owing to surface properties. Recently many designers have expressed their interest in particular in materials capable of altering their shape; when a certain temperature is exceeded they automati- cally return to their original geometry. Nor should we forget the op- tions created by material surfaces that can eliminate harmful gases and odors from the air, have an anti-bacterial effect or anti-reflection properties. It would seem that the classic mechanized understanding of material- ity is giving way to a new materials culture, in which materials reveal multi-functional potential: they can be lightweight or dirt repellent, can change color or are retro-reflecting. But they all share a single purpose: to achieve a more responsible use of our global resources.