View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Wits Institutional Repository on DSPACE Master of Education (MEd) Research Report University of the Witwatersrand Student Name: Leigh-Ann Naidoo Student Number: 331 502 Co-Supervisors: Ian Moll and Lynne Slonimsky Ethics Protocol Number: 2011ECE094C Date of Submission: 22 March 2013 TITLE The Role that Radical Pedagogy plays in Resistance Movements: A Case Study of the Black Consciousness Movement’s use of Paulo Freire’s Pedagogy. Johannesburg, 2013 ABSTRACT The role of education in building political movements and the potential of education to transform society are questions that remain relevant, not only in South Africa but the world over. The aim of this study was to investigate the Black Consciousness Movements (BCM’s) engagement with education and specifically critical pedagogy from 1968 until 1973. In this thesis I argue that the BCM understood education to be political and that education formed a central part of the movement. The study establishes that there are a number of tensions but that the central tension seems to be that the BCM really understand that they want to rebuild identity, subjectivity, consciousness, and deal with false consciousness, which is only possible through a sustained educational project. But what emerges is that the political project, of inspiring quick community action to solve-problems and ignite the masses to resist the racial oppressions that are prevalent, trumps the educational project. 2 DECLARATION I declare that this Masters (MEd) research report is my own. I submit this research report for the degree of Master of Education at the University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. This research report has not been submitted before for any other examination or degree at any other University, nor has it been prepared under the aegis of any other body, organisation or person outside of the University of the Witwatersrand. ........................................................ Leigh-Ann Naidoo 22nd day of March 2013 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My colleagues at the Johannesburg Workshop in Theory and Criticism (www.jwtc.org.za), Kelly Gillespie, Julia Hornberger, Zen Marie and Achille Mbembe, form part of a core group of friends and thinkers who have inspired me to engage in a more critical intellectual project. Lynne Slonimsky and Ian Moll provided me with immense guidance and support through the process of my research project. 4 Table of Contents Abstract 2 Declaration 3 Acknowledgements 4 Chapter 1: Introduction 5 Chapter 2: History of Radical Education 22 Chapter 3: Consciousness and Conscientisation 47 Chapter 4: Critical Education vs. Political Education 71 Chapter 5: Conclusion 99 Annexure A: Participant Consent Form 104 Annexure B: Participant Information and Consent Sheet 105 Annexure C: Participant Consent Form for Audio Recordings 106 Annexure D: Interview Schedule: Facilitator of Literacy Training 107 Annexure E: Interview Schedule: Participants of Literacy Campaign 108 Annexure F: Interview Schedule: Other BCM Leaders 109 Reference List 110 5 CHAPTER 1: Introduction Anne Hope, along with Sally Timmel, have been committed to a Freirean inspired project organized from South Africa called Training for Transformation, and have been doing community development work on the African continent for over 40 years (Hope and Timmel, 2002a).1 A few years ago in 2009, I attended Anne Hope’s 80th birthday celebration where she reflected on her life’s work in education. The part of her story that intrigued me was when she described the time she spent with Steve Biko and a group of BCM leaders in 1972, and recounted how this was the most exciting and challenging educational work she had ever done. I was compelled to find out about this period and I was interested to learn about Paulo Freire’s work and the Black Consciousness Movement (BCM)2. I also wanted to understand why Biko and fellow BCM leaders would approach a young, white, South African woman to teach them about Freire and developing a literacy campaign, during a period when black radicals in the BCM were strongly critiquing white South Africans and understanding them as liberals, who were not truly committed to transforming the racist South African society in which they lived and were privileged.3 In the recently published book on BC, historian Magaziner (2010) writes in detail about the origins of Black Consciousness and how this thought developed between 1968 and 1977. The book, as the title The Law and the Prophets: Black Consciousness in South Africa, 1968-1977 implies, focuses mainly on the theological influence of BC but interestingly to me, also briefly recounts the importance of the historical case study that is the initial focus of my 1Anne Hope and Sally Timmel have over the years developed four manuals called Training for Transformation, which remain the core material for the ongoing Freirean project for community workers that have been run throughout the African continent (Hope and Timmel, 1984 and 1999). 2 While I will explain in detail the formation of the Black Consciousness Movement (BCM) and it’s understanding of the term ‘black’, I would like to clarify up front that when the word black is used in the context of the BCM it is meant to include all people under apartheid who were considered to be oppressed by the racist white regimes that ruled in what is now known as South Africa since the onset of colonialism. My use of the word ‘black’ throughout this thesis is meant in the Black Consciousness sense described above. 3 See Chapter 5: Black Souls in White Skins? in I Write What I Like. (1979, pg. 19-26). 6 research ... “Anne Hope, a Christian Institute (CI) employee spent critical months training Biko, Pityana, and others in radical pedagogy during 1972” (Magaziner, 2010, p. 13). This was the starting point of my engagement and interest in education, and in particular the more radical and informal types of education. In considering and inquiring about a research project on radical education, I was surprised to find that there were not many courses or scholars working on radical education in the institutions of higher learning I approached. I began searching for current literature written about radical forms of education when I came across critical education, which according to Apple et al. suggests that in “…order to understand and act on education in its complicated connections to the larger society, we must engage in the process of repositioning” (2009, p. 3 – original emphasis). Here I seemed to find scholars and writings that were attempting to engage the transformative and radical potential of education. Apple et al. go on to propose a taxonomy of sorts to guide this repositioning of education research and pedagogy, consisting of “eight tasks in which critical analysis (and the critical analyst) in education must engage” (2009, p. 4-5). Below is an adapted summary of these eight tasks, which partly inspired and provided a rationale for my project, but also influenced my orientation to the project throughout the process of research design, proposal writing, through my data collection, analysis of data and the write-up of my thesis. 1. Bearing witness to negativity – one of its primary functions is to illuminate the ways in which educational policy and practice are connected to the relations of exploitation and domination – and to struggles against such relations – in the larger society. 2. In engaging in such critical analysis, it also must point to contradictions and to space of possible action. Thus, its aim is to critically examine current realities with a conceptual/political framework that emphasizes the spaces in which counter-hegemonic actions can, or do, carry on. 3. At times, this also requires a redefinition of what counts as “research”. Here we mean acting as “secretaries” to those groups of people and social movements who are now engaged in challenging existing relations of unequal power or in what elsewhere has been called “non-reformist reforms”. 4. There are serious intellectual (and pedagogic) skills in dealing with the histories and debates surrounding the epistemological, political, and educational issues involved in justifying what counts as important knowledge. These are not simple and inconsequential issues and the practical and intellectual/political skills of dealing with them have been well developed. However, they can atrophy if they are not used. We can give back these skills by employing them to assist communities in thinking about this, learning from them, and 7 engaging in the mutually pedagogic dialogues that enable decisions to be made in terms of both short-term and long-term interests of oppressed peoples. 5. In the process, critical work has the task of keeping traditions of radical work alive. In the face of organised attacks on the “collective memories” of difference and struggle, attacks that make it increasingly difficult to retain academic and social legitimacy for multiple critical approaches that have proven so valuable in countering dominant narratives and relations, it is absolutely crucial that these traditions be kept alive, renewed, and when necessary criticised for their conceptual, empirical, historical, and political silences or limitations. This entails being cautious of reductionism and essentialism. It also involves keeping alive the dreams, utopian visions, and “non-reformist reforms” that are so much a part of these radical traditions. 6. Keeping traditions alive and also supportively criticising them when they are not adequate to deal with current realities. This cannot be done unless we ask “For whom are we keeping them alive?” and “How and in what form are they to be made available?” All of the things mentioned above require the relearning or development and use of varied or new skills of working at many levels with multiple groups (for example journalistic and media skills, academic and popular skills, and the ability to speak to very different audiences are increasingly crucial). 7. Critical educators must also act in concert with the progressive social movements their work supports. One must participate in and give one’s expertise to movements surrounding struggles over a politics of redistribution and a politics of recognition. It also implies learning from these social movements. 8. Participation also means using the privilege one has as a scholar/activist by opening spaces at universities and elsewhere for those who are not there, for those who do not now have a voice in that space and in the “professional” sites to which, being in a privileged position, you have access. While this project has not allowed me to engage all of the eight points above, a few of them have resonated. While ‘bearing witness to negativity’ has been less of an issue with my project, it has provided a starting point as the event I am looking at is a historical moment of exposing the connections between educational policy and practices under apartheid and how these were connected to relations of exploitation and domination of the black majority. My project attempts to contribute to the redefinition of what counts as research, as well as a reclamation of a part of South African history that has not been spoken about, in an attempt to keep the radical traditions of informal and radical education alive. These traditions seem to have diminished in terms of the research agenda within the school of education at the University of the Witwatersrand. Reflecting on the BCM, which in many ways was the start of a particular radical education tradition, seems to me to be a good starting point. 8 Critical reflection or looking back into history is a key component to re-imagining the possibilities that exist for the present and future. This research project will provide a narrative of history by examining the relation between the BCM and education, their engagement with a particularly radical pedagogical practitioner (in Paulo Freire) during one of the key moments in the South African resistance to apartheid, and how their education project evolves. In particular, and as a starting point, the study will describe the six-month period of training for fifteen of the BCM leaders in Freirean pedagogy by Anne Hope for the purpose of developing a literacy campaign. There will also be a systematic engagement with the rich archival documents of the relevant organisations over that period. My study is of a qualitative nature and can further be defined as a historical case study that looks at a specific historical period and a particular movement’s relation to education and radical pedagogy. The overall intent of this case study is of an interpretive nature. The historical case study spans 1968 to 1973 in South Africa, beginning with the formation of the South African Student Organisation (SASO), tracking its development from 1968 to 1973. I will pose the following questions: - (1) What was the relation between the BCM and education; (2) how do the BCM recruit from Freire’s concepts; and (3) what happens to their education project? The case study period includes the 5-month period in 1972 from where the Freirean literacy training took place as week-long sessions once a month over a five month period. There were 10-15 participants selected as the national leaders of the BCM (that is from different geographic regions of South Africa). These included but were not limited to Steve Biko, Barney Pityana, Strini Moodley, Saths Cooper, Jonny Issel, Bokwe Mafuna, and Harry Ngwenya.4 The study will not have a specific geographic site and as this happened over 40 years ago there are only a few of the people who were part of the participant group who are still alive. The person who facilitated the training, Anne Hope, was the first person to be interviewed. I used snowball or network sampling, where “participant’s referrals are the basis for choosing a sample” (McMillan and Schumacher, 2006, p.321). The sample size for the study was small and “bounded”. The 4 These names were collated from interviews with Saths Cooper, Anne Hope, Mamphela Ramphela and Bokwe Mafuna, but no-one could give me a finite list of attendees and it became apparent that the group was somewhat flexible and attendance was dependent on peoples’ study and work programmes, resources to travel, and so on. 9 people I ended up identifying as part of my small bounded sample size, and interviewing were easy to find contact details for, as they were mostly prominent leaders or people in the public eye. This made the task of finding contact details for them easy but meant that I needed to wait a bit longer than usual to secure interview appointments because of their busy schedules. The sample was also spread out across the country in Johannesburg, Cape Town and Kleinmond. Case study research in education often draws on other disciplines like sociology, psychology, history, etc. for techniques of data analysis and collection as well as for theoretical orientation. As mentioned earlier, I have oriented my research design within the discipline of history and sociology. The data collection technique I used was individual in-depth interviews. These were semi-structured interviews with a focus on peoples’ careers and involvement in education and the BCM, and the particular literacy training. This entailed spending at least an hour with each interviewee (Anne Hope, Sally Timmel, Saths Cooper, Bokwe Mafuna and Mamphela Ramphela) and a follow-up interview with Anne Hope. I ended up using archival sources relating to the history of the BCM, more than I originally expected to. This was because of the rich material on the BCM that I collected from the ALUKA Online Archive. These consisted of resistance documents, including reports, minutes of meetings, pamphlets, memo’s newspaper articles and so on, from the period 1968 to 1976. In addition to this, the rich documenting of the history of African politics by Karis and Gerhart (1997), From Protest to Challenge Volume 5 covering 1964 to 1979, which includes speeches, personal letters, minutes, reports, memorandums and newspaper articles. The ALUKA Online Archive (ALUKA) also included the five Black Review books, which are a rich annual report of sorts on black life in South Africa from 1972 to 1976. The other rich archival source I engaged was over 600 pages of the court transcripts stored digitally in the Historical Papers Digitised Archive at the University of the Witwatersrand of Steve Biko’s testimony in the 1975-76 SASO/BCM trial. As one of the methods of collecting data was in-depth interviews, it was expected that there would be rich material for analysis. The interviews were audio recorded with the permission of the interviewees and then transcribed verbatim. These textual transcripts form a small part of 10