The "Step Daughters1 " of the Ref rmation in Switzerland and South Germany. pl C,___r~ t Everlasting Father in heav n, l,'--lj(}'lf'<-~c I call on you so ardently, Do not let me turn from yo,. Keep me in your truth Until my final end To walk through your pow r into death, Through sorrow, torture, fi ar and want. Sustain me in this, . 0 God, so that I nevermor Be separated from your lo e. Hymn of Annelein ofFreidburg, drowned then burned 15292 It was exciting to be part of a B A Anabaptist/Reformation tour to historical sites in Germany and Switzerland where 16th cen ury believers experienced God, taught, witnessed and sometimes suffered for their faith. To fo low the footsteps of the trail-blazing Anabaptists was difficult. Unlike the Reformers, their Ana aptist cousins are not national identities in the lands of their birth, like Luther, Zwingli and Calv n. For a Baptist pilgrim this was disappointing. Even more frustrating was the search for the wo en of the Anabaptist fahh of the sixteenth century. We celebrated the memory of pi neer Anabaptist Felix Mantz, at the Limmat River in Switzerland, where he was drowned for is faith. But Margret Hottinger, who shared the same prison. cell and died for her faith, was n t mentioned. We heard, of the courage of Balthasar Hubmaier but his wife Elsbeth, drowned or her beliefs, was hardly spoken of We were moved by the fortitude of Michael Sattler but earned that his equally brave wife, unnamed in the original records, was simply assigned th name "Margaretha". We are indebted to Canadian authors Snyder and Huebert Hecht, for he ping make Anabaptist women known .. 1 The tenn "Step-Children of the Reformation" wa used by W. Estep on the study tour and I have adapted it to represent the women of the Anabaptist movement. 2 C. Arnold Synder, and Linda A Huebert Hecht, P ofiles of Anaba tist Women: Sixteenth-Centu Pioneers, (Ontario: Wilfred Laurier Universtiy, 19 6), p.199 The Heart ofA nabaptist Theology While water baptism was the rno t vivid identifying mark of the Anabaptists, a strong emphasis on the Holy Spirit's work in le ding to faith in Christ and new life was evident. This was important, for the Spirit led both me and women to a living faith. The importance of the reading of Scripture, under the Spirit, l d to extra-biblical revelations, dreams, and visions, granted to both women and men. While ornetirnes women in the Church of the ages received recognition, even sainthood, Anabaptist men faded into virtual obscurity. Living a life led by the Spirit of God was expected of worn n and men alike and sometimes led to radical social action, and often to martyrdom. Personal responsibility was basic, hich meant yielding to God and to the body of Christ on earth and often led to a spiritual "calli g" and to prophetic activity. Anabaptist women often had prophetic leadership and were frequen ly the key to the movement's survival. The Role of Women in the Anabapti t Movement. The "calling of the Spirit" as a fo ndation for the Anabaptist movement was egalitarian and personal and so included women. They were expected to be faithful even under imprisonment, torture or threat of death Bainton and Williams claim a "radical equality" between Anabaptist women and men w ile Clasen concludes that Anabaptists "showed no inclination to grant women a greater role t an they customarily had in sixteenth century sc5ciety." ·· Records suggest that while Anabaptist w men were not usually equal with men they certainly experienced considerable freedom of choi e. Huebert Hecht and Weber agree that in the early days of the movement women had some quality and prophetic roles but as the early creative period passed their role decreased. 3 3 See Roland Bainton, Women of the Reformation i Germany and Italy (Minneapolis:Augsburg, 1971 ); ·G eorge H. Williams The Radical Reformation (Philadelphia: estminster, 1962), p.506-507 2 Jurgen-Goertz maintains that An baptist women were not of the literate elite but were nonetheless self-confident and able. They believed in the "priesthood of all believers." He claims documentary evidence exists that wome were engaged in "corner preaching, evangelizing and even baptizing" but this is not confirm d by Anabaptist sources.4 Women engaged. in anti clerical activities mocking the priests or uttering during sermons. The clergy to many women represented a world of inequality while A abaptist visionaries such as Ursula Jost sought justice and equality. Court testimonies have left a wri ten legacy, even if written by enemies of Anabaptist women who themselves have left a writt n testimony in letters and hymns.(See the start of this paper.) Women in the Swiss Anabaptist moveme The first Anabaptist congregatio in Switzerland was in the village of Zollikon, near Zurich. Felix Mantz and Conrad Grebel re the first to preach, while George Blaurock started a baptizing ministry. When in 1525 the Z rich authorities sent an official to Zollikon to collect fines from the "re-baptized" he was met b very angry and stubborn women .. "The wife ofthe local overseer ha been baptized, but refused to pay her fine." Another woman joined her saying "If I were invol ed in this thing like the others, then we women would stick together and we would see if we h d to pay the fines or not." She continued to give the officer a tongue lashing "with many asty words." Others echoed her sentiments. Elsy Baumgartner added a common peasant c plaint, "God created the earth for her as much as for milords,". indicating a class as well as reli 4 Hans Jurgen-Goertz Tile Anabaptists (London: Routledge, 1996). P. 114 5 Hans Jurgen-Goertz, p. 253 3 Apparently women did not prea h, baptize or preside at the Lord's Supper. But the women of Zollikon did have their say!6 The Women Elsbeth Hubmaier The wives of Sattler and Hubma er were martyred but are hardly mentioned in their husbands' stories. A rare reference to Eis eth Hubmaier was that after Hubmaier's martyrdom in 1528, "Elsbeth, who had loyally followe him on his long journey ... to Vienna, was drowned three days later in the Danube."7 Howe er Elsbeth does receive more attention in Anabaptist Portraits. When Hubmaier was charged ith sedition and insurrection in Walshut Elsbeth was taken to Vienna with him and questione . After a few days the Hubmaiers were taken to the Kreuzenstein, an old castle, where they ere charged with heresy, incarcerated separately and questioned under torture. Hubmaier recant d several times during his life but the persecutors said ofElsbeth "She was hardened in the same heresy, more constant than her husband."8 Margaretha Sattler . · The gentleness and courage of Mi hael Sattler was noteworthy but little is known of his wife. In The Life of Michael Sattler we ead of her arrest with her husband at Horeb, her first mention in the original sources. She is id il.tified as "Margaretha, wife of Michael Sattler from Staufen." In Sattler' s last letter to his co gregation he writes that he had surrendered himself entirely to the will of the Lord and that h with all the brothers, his wife and some other sisters were prepared to witness even to death. e asks the readers to care for his wife if he is killed.9 Margaretha is referred to as a "refined nd comely little woman" who was drowned in the Neckar River two days following her hu band's cruel martyrdom in Rottenburg in 1527. She 6 Jurgen-Goertz p. 254 7 Torsten Bergsten, trans. by Irwin Barnes and Wil iam R. Estep: Balthasar Hubmaier: Anabpatist Theologian and Martyr (Valley Forge: Judson 1978) p. 379 4 seemed as composed as her husband when this verdict was read and spoke words of encouragement to the court assembly. 10 The wife of Count Joachim von Zollern ried to persuade Margarctha to give up her faith and live with the countess a part of her court. The ourageous woman decided that she would be faithful to her beliefs and the memory of her martyred In sband -she stated that she would have preferred to be burnt wi.t hiu.m . 11 Margret Hottinger ofZollikon This courageous, young woman from Zollikon was determined to follow her own conviction even to death. Margret came from a lower-middle class family very involved in religious reform. She stands out with her zeal, and prophetic gifts. In 1525 she was arrested for Anabaptist beliefs as part of a crackdown by the Zurich authorities. She was placed in the tower within Zurich with Grebel, Sattler, Mant , Tech, Linck and Blaurock. The official records note of Margret, "It is ou:r decision that she .. be asked whether or not she will persist in rebaptism and the teaching of Grebel, Mantz, et . And if she persists, she should be placed in the 12 Wellenberg." Sattler and Linck, both to becom Anabaptist leaders, showed much less determination than Margret. They swore to desist fro promoting "re-baptism" and were released. Margret refused to recant and was placed in the to er with other "stubborn ones". Margret Hottinger has said that she holds i ant baptism to be incorrect and rebaptism to be right. Likewise she asked milords that if they can rove to her that infant baptism is correct, then she wiH . 13 d es1st. 8 John Allen Moore: Anabaptist Portraits (Scottdal ·: Herald 1984) p. 241 9 Moore p 112 10 Moore p. 118 11 Moore p. 119 12 Snyder and Hecht p. 47 13 Snyder and Hecht p. 4 7 5 Margret, still in prison the following Mar h, when asked to recant, declared that an opponent of believer's baptism was "a child of the dev I. " Margret and other women were condemned to the New Tower. Finally after six months of harsh imprisonment Margret confessed .that she had erred. She was released but that was not th end of her rebellion. In 1526, Margret traveled to St. G II where she showed herself to be a charismatic and prophetic woman. Kessler, not a sympath tic witness, described her in the Sabbata, as a woman loved by the Anabaptists and who lived disciplined way of life. He says she "claimed to be God" but others doubt she made this claim Despite all efforts to repress the A abaptist movement Margret remained strong. In 1530, Margret and some family members fled t Moravia where there was religious freedom. They were arrested north of Ravensburg. Margr t was drowned as an Anabaptist. One account tells of her being pulled from the water and being sked to recant but she refused and was drowned. 15 Agnes Linckf rom Biel In 1528, Agnes Linck from the Swi s town of Biel was questioned on a charge of heresy. She called the Catholic and Reformers' pr ctice of the Lord's Supper "useless." and claimed she had not been "re-baptized" except by the S irit of God. Agnes was exiled. She does not appear in the records for two years. In Basel she c nfessed to having been "re-baptized" in Biel and to being an Anabaptist. Her original defence that her baptism was by God was commonly used by Anabaptists. Her subsequent history show dogged opposition to her accusers despite threats of death. Adelheit Schwarz of Watt Adelheit Schwarz was married to B Ithasar Spilmann. Records show her in prison with a company of defiant Anabaptist women. A elheit had been charged with not attending the state 14 Snyder p. 256 15 Snyder p. 258 6 church as required by law, and not pa icipating in the Lord's Supper. In 1529 the Zurich authorities arrested twenty-eight people in luding twelve women. One was Adelheit Schwarz. The responses of the women to q estioning indicates their strategy of passive resistance. The scribe noted that Adelheit would not ive a straight answer. She contended that baptism was commanded of God but would not say wh eh baptism. A second woman answered the same way. A third admitted to have been "re-bapti ed" but would not say by whom. The next answered only "yes" or "no" and the last admitte having been baptized as a believer but said nothing further. These women refused to aid the authorities. Torture by beating and thumbscrew were introduced and under this pressure some omen named the man who baptized them. The records show that Adelheit had not been "re-bapt zed" yet chose to stay with her Anabaptist friends in prison for at least twelve months. Altho gh she finally consented to the official wording of baptism it seems she did not change her vi ws. Because Adelheit had left her hu band with thirteen children, seven of them hers, he divorced her. In court she stated that "s e wished to be obedient to God, and not to earthly authorities." There is no further record o Adelheit for seventeen years until Hans Fisher was arrested and recanted, and quoted Adelhei 's name as part of a forest community, to which they both belonged. Margaret Hellwart ofB eutelsbach Anabaptist women had to contend with civil authorities and Lutheran church leaders. At Beutelsbach, Lutheran leaders tried to ex·le the Anabaptist women, many of whose husbands were not Anabaptists. This brought hards ip to the families so the women were chained to the floor of their houses so they could look aft r their families. In 1608 Margaret appeared before the church court, and was asked why she refus d to conform to Lutheran faith and practice. Refusing 7 to yield Margaret was chained up no I ss than twenty-one times between 1610 and 1621. Apparently she could get relief for she w s able to attend Anabaptist meetings. This was a self- confident woman able to endure the strug le for her faith. and to convince many to join it.16 Anabaptist Women of South Germa y The mystical, spiritualist and apoc lyptic beginnings of South German Anabaptists were not a direct continuation of the Swiss m vement. Yet the two groups recognized each other. Early chaos gave way to the establishme t of settled communities especially after 1528. Like other Anabaptist movements it closely int rwove political experience with scripture reading and theological reflection. The foundations in South Germany are focused in the Peasant's War of 1525 and the theologies of Muntzer, D nck and Hut. There is evidence that women were involved in much of the non-formal lea ership. They played a big part in the proselytization within the "kinship, friendship and l.e dership networks."17 In the Hutterite communities submission by women was expected as we know from what Peter Riedeman writes in his Rechenschaf "Since woman was taken fr m man, and not man from woman, man hath lordship but woman weakness, humility and subm· ssion, therefore she should be under the yoke of man and obedient to him."18 Women were given the freedom to leave "unbelieving" spouses, for "obedience to God" was considered more important than marri ge or family ties. Some walked the trail to martyrdom for their devotion to God. Anabaptist Women in Augsburg Opposition from civic and church uthorities sent Anabaptists underground in Augsburg. The only records are from the court. abaptists formed a congregation in 1527 and were 16 Snyder and Hecht p. 64-66 17 Snyder and Hecht p 71-78 8 influenced by Denck and Hubmaier, wh le Hut gathered the first congregation. This group met with fierce opposition from the author ties culminating in a raid on the house of Susanna Doucher where several hundred Anabapt sts were meeting for worship. Eighty-eight people were imprisoned and interrogated under tort re. The rack was used on men, the thumb screw on women. Some women in Augsburg helpe hold the community together. They used their homes for meetings and offered accommodation to itinerant ministers and refugees. If caught they were branded on both cheeks and exiled from t e city for life. 19 Susanna Doucher Susanna was married to a pro sculptor, who did not support her Anabaptist involvement. She was hostess the nigh the authorities raided the Anabaptist gathering. She revealed her own courage while tryin to exonerate her husband. The normal penalty for harboring Anabaptists was branding on both cheeks and exile. Since Anna was pregnant the branding was omitted but she was led ou of the city bound in irons. Anna was exiled for life but as she the wife of a prominent citizen wa later allowed to return. 20 Katharina Wiedenmann Katharina and her cobbler husban made their home a center for clandestine Anabaptist activities. Simprecht, Katharina's husba d, complained to the authorities that poorer members were treated more harshly than wealthier members. Both were exiled and unlike some wealthier colleagues, were never allowed to return. Sabina Bader Sabina Bader was from a promi ent family in Augsburg. She and her husband were baptized but fled when the authorities ea e to arrest them. In 1529 the Baders promoted some 18 Synder, p 260 19 Snyder and Hecht p. 82-84 9 apocalyptic theories in a settlement near Ulm. In 1530 the whole Anabaptist community was imprisoned. Sabina sought her children's release but was only successful when the area became Protestant in 1536. Sabina was a literate and accomplished woman who had a vision of being part of the new world promised by Hu and others. 21 The apocalyptic views she and her husband held were among the reasons the wider Anabaptist movement was often ridiculed. Women who defied the authoritie came from all walks of life and different social strata. Some hosted meetings in their houses, ome distributed alms. They fed and housed refugee Anabaptists and shared the faith with othe s. They were remarkably resolute and courageous.22 Magdalena von Pappenheim Magdalena was a Benedictine n n who left convent life and became involved in the controversy between Anabaptist leader, arpeck, and Silesian spiritualist, Schwenckfeld. The protagonists sought to convince the influ ntial and radical women of the area, one of whom was Magdalena, and was described by Willia s as the "War of Radical Ladies".23 Magdalena was a follower of Marpeck. The two sides discu sed the central issue in radical Protestantism, the work of God's grace and justification. Central o their discussions was the difference in Christology, Marpeck believing in the joint humanity a d divinity of Jesus Christ while Schwenckfled denied that Christ was ever a "creature." Magda ena was involved in the correspondence revealing an ardent search for truth.24 Here was a worn n, not universally known, but with great intellect and devotion. 20 Snyder and Hecht p 85 21 Snyder and Hecht p. 106-109 22 Snyder and Hecht p 88-100 23 Snyder and Hecht p. 112 24 Snyder and Hecht p. 111-119 10