Mapping Research and Innovation in the Republic of Zimbabwe GOàSPIN Country Profiles in Science, Technology and Innovation Policy Volume 2 In co-operation with the  With the financial support Ministry of Higher and Tertiary of the Spanish Agency o  f Education, Science and International Co-operation for Technology Development of Development (AECID) the Republic of Zimbabwe Published in 2014 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 7, place de Fontenoy, 75352 Paris 07 SP, France 1    © UNESCO 2014 ISBN 978-92-3-100034-8 Original title: Mapping Research and Innovation in the Republic of Zimbabwe Suggested citation: UNESCO (2014) Mapping Research and Innovation in the Republic of Zimbabwe. G. A. Lemarchand and S. Schneegans, eds. GOàSPIN Country Profiles in Science, Technology and Innovation Policy, vol. 2. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization: Paris. This study results from the contribution of the following people: Guillermo A. Lemarchand, Wilson Parawira and Susan Schneegans. The final edition was prepared by Guillermo A. Lemarchand and Susan Schneegans. © UNESCO 2014 This publication is available in Open Access under the Attribution-NoDerivs 3.0 IGO (CC-BY-ND 3.0 IGO) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/3.0/igo/). By using the content of this publication, the users accept to be bound by the terms of use of the UNESCO Open Access Repository (www.unesco.org/open-access/terms-use-ccbynd-en). The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The ideas and opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors; they are not necessarily those of UNESCO and do not commit the Organization. Countries interested in maintaining an inventory of their national research and innovation system within GOàSPIN are invited to contact: Maciej Nalecz Director, Division of Science Policy and Capacity-Building Natural Sciences Sector UNESCO 1, rue Miollis 75352 Paris Cedex 15, France E-mail: [email protected] or [email protected] Website: www.unesco.org/news/en/natural-sciences/science-technology/sti-policy/ Layout: Mirian Querol Printed by: UNESCO/MSS/CLD Printed in Paris, France Acronyms and Abbreviations AECID Spanish Agency of International Cooperation for Development (Agencia Española de Cooperación Internacional para el Desarrollo) ARIPO African Regional Intellectual Property Organization ASTI Agriculture Science and Technology Indicators ASTII African STI Indicators Initiative (NEPAD) AOSTI African STI Observatory (African Union) COMESA Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa CZI Confederation of Zimbabwe Industries GDP Gross domestic product GOàSPIN Global Observatory of Science, Technology and Innovation Policy Instruments (UNESCO) GOZ Government of Zimbabwe EPO European Patent Office FDI Foreign direct investment FTE Full-time equivalent HDI Human Development Index (UNDP) ICTs Information and communication technologies IDRC International Development Research Centre (Canada) IPR Intellectual property rights ISCED International Standard Classification of Education MDG Millennium Development Goals MINHTESTD Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, Science and Technology Development (Zimbabwe) NBA National Biotechnology Authority (Zimbabwe) NEPAD New Partnership for Africa’s Development (African Union) OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development PPP Purchasing power parity RCZ Research Council of Zimbabwe R&D Research and development SADC Southern African Development Community S&T Science and technology SETI Science, engineering, technology and innovation STI Science, technology and innovation STIIP Science, Technology and Innovation Information Platform STPI Science and technology policy instruments UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UIS UNESCO Institute for Statistics USPTO United States Patents and Trademark Office WIPO World Intellectual Property Organization ZIMSTAT Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency iii Contents Foreword ix Introduction xi Acknowledgments xiii The methodological framework for this series xv Zimbabwe: mapping the landscape of a small-economy innovation system 1 R&D indicators for Zimbabwe 51 A scientometric analysis of Zimbabwe 59 Historical background to SETI policies in Zimbabwe 83 The SETI policy cycle in Zimbabwe 98 The analytical content of Zimbabwe´s SETI policy 99 Analysis of the SETI organizational chart and flows in Zimbabwe 107 Inventory of SETI Institutions in Zimbabwe 111 Inventory of Zimbabwe’s legal framework for SETI 159 Inventory of SETI operational policy instruments in Zimbabwe 173 SWOT analysis of Zimbabwe’s research and innovation system 183 References 191 Glossary 199 iv List of Illustrations TABLES page Table 1 Quality of life in Zimbabwe 10 Table 2 Macro-economic and budgetary projections for Zimbabwe, 2014–2015 15 Table 3 Real sector growth projections for Zimbabwe, 2013–2015 16 Table 4 FDI inflow and outflow for Zimbabwe, 1990–2012 21 Table 5 Average technical efficiency and scientific productivity in Zimbabwe, 1986–2007 22 Table 6 Selected subjective and objective measurements for Zimbabwe 30 Table 7 Factors affecting business in Zimbabwe, 2013 31 Table 8 Average capacity utilization by subsector in Zimbabwe, 2013 32 Table 9 Percentage of Zimbabwean population having ever attended school, by age group and sex, 2012 38 Table 10 Zimbabwean population aged 3−24 years currently attending school, by current level of education and sex, 2012 39 Table 11 Highest level of academic education completed among Zimbabweans aged 20 years and over, by age group and sex, 2012 39 Table 12 Ordinary (‘O’) level science subject enrolment in Zimbabwe, 2000−2012 41 Table 13 Advanced (‘A’) level science subject enrolment in Zimbabwe, 2002−2012 42 Table 14 Advanced (‘A’) level pass rates (%) in science subjects in Zimbabwe, 2003−2012 43 Table 15 Enrolment in higher and tertiary education in Zimbabwe, 2006−2012 45 Table 16 Number of graduates from the University of Zimbabwe, by faculty, 1980−2013 47 Table 17 Number of master’s degrees and medical doctors/PhDs from the University of Zimbabwe, 2012 48 Table 18 Graduates from different Zimbabwean universities, by field of science, 2013 48 Table 19 Destination of Zimbabwean university students studying abroad, 1999−2012 50 Table 20 R&D personnel in Zimbabwe by performance sector, 2012 52 Table 21 Researchers in Zimbabwe’s public sector by field of science, 2012 53 Table 22 R&D personnel in Zimbabwe’s public sector by level of qualification, 2012 54 Table 23 Main findings of UNESCO survey of R&D in Zimbabwe in 1962 56 Table 24 Zimbabwean co-authorship of mainstream scientific publications with other countries, 1960–1979 63 Table 25 Authors’ host institution in Zimbabwe for published articles, 1960−1979 63 Table 26 Distribution of articles from Zimbabwe listed by the Web of Science, by sub-field, 1960–1979 64 v Table 27 Distribution of mainstream scientific publications, citations, H index and regional and global ranks for all African countries, 2012 66 Table 28 Zimbabwean co-authorship of mainstream scientific publications with other countries, 1980−2013 69 Table 29 Distribution of mainstream scientific publications in Zimbabwe, by national institution and laboratory, 1980−2013 71 Table 30 Top ten foreign research institutions and centres co-authoring articles with Zimbabwean scientists, 1980−2013 73 Table 31 Distribution of mainstream scientific articles in Zimbabwe by sub-field, 1980−2013 74 Table 32 Number of patent applications filed and patents obtained abroad by Zimbabwean residents, 1994−2012 79 Table 33 Trademark applications and registrations involving residents and non-residents in Zimbabwe and filed/obtained abroad, 1998−2012 81 Table 34 Industrial design applications and registrations involving residents and non-residents in Zimbabwe and filed/obtained abroad, 1998–2012 82 Table 35 Faculties and programmes in SETI at Africa University in Zimbabwe 136 Table 36 Faculties and programmes in SETI at the Bindura University College of Science Education in Zimbabwe 137 Table 37 Schools and programmes in SETI at Chinhoyi University of Technology 138 Table 38 Faculties and programmes in SETI at the Great Zimbabwe University 139 Table 39 Schools and programmes in SETI at the Harare Institute of Technology 140 Table 40 Faculties and programmes in SETI at Lupane State University 141 Table 41 Faculties and programmes in SETI at Midlands State University 142 Table 42 Faculties and programmes in SETI at the National University of Science and Technology 143 Table 43 Faculties and programmes related to SETI at the University of Zimbabwe 145 Table 44 Faculties and programmes in SETI at the Women’s University in Africa 151 Table 45 Faculties and programmes in SETI at the Zimbabwe Open University 152 Table 46 SWOT analysis of Zimbabwe’s research and innovation system 189 FIGURES Figure 1 Evolution in the population of Zimbabwe, 1960−2013 6 Figure 2 Evolution in Zimbabwe’s Human Development Index, 1970−2012 7 Figure 3 Evolution in life expectancy at birth in Zimbabwe, 1960−2012 8 Figure 4 Evolution of GDP per capita, expressed in constant 2012 US$, in Zimbabwe and sub-Saharan Africa, 1960–2013 13 Figure 5 Evolution of gross fixed capital formation in Zimbabwe, expressed as a percentage of GDP, 1996−2013 21 Figure 6 Evolution in government effectiveness worldwide, as measured against political stability/absence of violence, 1996−2012 25 vi Figure 7 Evolution in government effectiveness in Zimbabwe, as measured against political stability/absence of violence, 1996–2012 26 Figure 8 Evolution of the two combined governance indicators represented in Figure 7, 1996–2012 26 Figure 9 Evolution of the corruption perceptions index in Zimbabwe, 1998–2013 27 Figure 10 Major difficulties in promoting innovation and competitiveness in Zimbabwe, 2013 29 Figure 11 Sources of funding for capital investment in Zimbabwean industry, 2012 and 2013 33 Figure 12 Results of a poll on the suitability of the tertiary curriculum in Zimbabwe, 2013 33 Figure 13 Results of a poll on collaboration with local universities in Zimbabwe,, 2013 33 Figure 14 Zimbabwe’s scores for each individual pillar, taking into account the estimation of the Global Innovation Index, 2013 34 Figure 15 Ordinary (‘O’) level science subject pass rate in Zimbabwe, 2003−2012 41 Figure 16 Total number of graduates from the University of Zimbabwe, 1980−2013 45 Figure 17 Percentage distribution of graduates from the University of Zimbabwe, by field of science, 1980−2013 46 Figure 18 University students from Zimbabwe studying abroad, 1999−2012 50 Figure 19 Evolution in the number of FTE agricultural researchers in Zimbabwe, 1960–2012 58 Figure 20 Evolution in the number of FTE agricultural researches in Zimbabwe per million population, 1960–2012 58 Figure 21 Evolution in the number scientific publication listed by the Web of Science for Zimbabwe, 1960–1979 62 Figure 22 Evolution in the number of scientific publications per million population in Zimbabwe, 1960–1979 62 Figure 23 Evolution in the number of scientific publications listed by the Web of Science for Zimbabwe, 1980–2013 67 Figure 24 Evolution in the number of scientific publications per million population in Zimbabwe, 1980–2013 68 Figure 25 Absence of any correlation between GDP per capita in constant US$ 2012 and the number of scientific publications listed by the Web of Science per million population, 1980–2013 68 Figure 26 Evolution in international scientific co-authorship as a share of total annual publications in Zimbabwe, 1996–2012 70 Figure 27 Distribution of publications in Zimbabwe, by field of science, 1996–2012 74 Figure 28a Evolution in patent applications in Zimbabwe by residents and non-residents, 1960−2002 78 Figure 28b Evolution in patents granted in Zimbabwe to residents and non-residents, 1960−2002 78 Figure 29 Patent applications filed abroad by Zimbabweans, by top field of technology, 1998−2012 79 Figure 30 Evolution in the number of trademark applications in Zimbabwe, 1960−2002 81 Figure 31 SETI policy cycle in Zimbabwe 98 Figure 32 Organizational chart showing the national research and innovation system in Zimbabwe by level 109 Figure 33 Distribution of SETI operational policy instruments according to the GOàSPIN categories of objective and goal 174 vii BOXES Box 1 Zimbabwe’s National Gender Policy, 2013−2017 8 Box 2 Further anchoring indigenous knowledge systems in Zimbabwe’s research and innovation policies 12 Box 3 Compensation and nationalization policies 14 Box 4 Investment opportunities and incentives in Zimbabwe 18 Box 5 Research and innovation In Zimbabwe’s Industrial Development Policy, 2012−2016 34 Box 6 Zimbabwe Agricultural Investment Plan 2013–2017 37 Box 7 UNESCO’s first survey of R&D in Zimbabwe in 1962 55 Box 8 Long-term research trends in agricultural sciences 57 Box 9 A brief history of the tobacco industry in Zimbabwe 85 Box 10 UNESCO’s review of STI policy in Zimbabwe, 2008−2014 92 Box 11 National research priorities of Zimbabwe 100 Box 12 Policies designed to woo skilled expats back home or foster networking 102 Box 13 Zimbabwe’s National Biotechnology Policy 105 Box 14 Zimbabwe’s National Nanotechnology Programme 106 Box 15 Research Council of Zimbabwe 114 Box 16 Agricultural Research Trust 155 Box 17 Two examples of policy instruments for the social appropriation of science 180 Box 18 Strategic policy instruments for promoting innovation and adding value to diamond exports 182 viii Foreword by Irina Bokova Science, engineering, technology and innovation hold key answers to the new, complex challenges facing governments. These cannot be stand-alone processes but rather should be integrated into societies through partnerships, through strong links between science, policy and society, through effective national policies and robust systems of governance and through science education. Innovation is not a decision but an ecosystem that is a foundation for knowledge societies and sustainable development. Governments need tools to map the landscape of science, technology and innovation (STI) in their countries, in order to strengthen national frameworks and take sharper decisions. This is the importance of UNESCO’s Global Observatory of Science, Technology and Innovation Policy Instruments (GOàSPIN), which allows governments to review their country’s performance against established indicators while exploring best practices from other countries. GOàSPIN provides key information on a range of levels, from STI policies, operational instruments and legal frameworks to STI national systems and data – all in order to improve policy-making, implementation and evaluation. GOàSPIN is a core part of UNESCO’s strategy to support the development of science policy initiatives, working with governments and other partners. Reliable information is vital for integrating research and innovation as cross-cutting policies into national development strategies and for catalysing greater investment by governments in the sciences for sustainable development. I am confident that this new online series of country profiles by UNESCO will provide Member States and the global scientific community with a useful tool as we seek to build more inclusive knowledge societies. Irina Bokova ix