ElsevierUK Title:CATM/0catpre 25-6-2006 3:17p.m. PageNo:i Manufacturing Technology for Aerospace Structural Materials ElsevierUK Title:CATM/0catm01 25-6-2006 2:59p.m. PageNo:1 This Page is Intentionally Left Blank ElsevierUK Title:CATM/0catpre 25-6-2006 3:17p.m. PageNo:iii Manufacturing Technology for Aerospace Structural Materials F.C. Campbell AMSTERDAM•BOSTON•HEIDELBERG•LONDON•NEWYORK•OXFORD PARIS•SANDIEGO•SANFRANCISCO•SINGAPORE•SYDNEY•TOKYO ElsevierUK Title:CATM/0catpre 25-6-2006 3:17p.m. PageNo:iv ElsevierB.V. ElsevierInc., ElsevierLtd. ElsevierLtd. Radarweg29 525BStreet,Suite1900 TheBoulevard,LangfordLane 84TheobaldsRoad P.O.Box211,1000AE SanDiego, Kidlington,Oxford London Amsterdam CA92101-4495 OX51GB WC1Z8RR TheNetherlands USA UK UK ©2006ElsevierLtd.Allrightsreserved. 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PrintedinGreatBritain. 06 07 08 09 10 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Working together to grow libraries in developing countries www.elsevier.com | www.bookaid.org | www.sabre.org ElsevierUK Title:CATM/0catpre 25-6-2006 3:17p.m. PageNo:v Contents Preface xiii Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Aluminum 4 1.2 Magnesium and Beryllium 6 1.3 Titanium 7 1.4 High Strength Steels 8 1.5 Superalloys 8 1.6 Composites 9 1.7 Adhesive Bonding and Integrally Cocured Structure 10 1.8 Metal and Ceramic Matrix Composites 11 1.9 Assembly 12 Summary 12 References 13 Chapter 2 Aluminum 15 2.1 Metallurgical Considerations 17 2.2 Aluminu m Alloy Designation 23 2.3 Aluminum Alloys 25 2.4 Melting and Primary Fabrication 31 2.4.1 Rolling Plate and Sheet 33 2.4.2 Extrusion 37 2.5 Heat Treating 37 2.5.1 Solution Heat Treating and Aging 37 2.5.2 Annealing 42 2.6 Forging 43 2.7 Forming 46 2.7.1 Blanking and Piercing 47 2.7.2 Brake Forming 48 2.7.3 Deep Drawing 49 2.7.4 Stretch Forming 50 v ElsevierUK Title:CATM/0catpre 25-6-2006 3:17p.m. PageNo:vi Contents 2.7.5 Rubber Pad Forming 51 2.7.6 Superplastic Forming 51 2.8 Casting 57 2.8.1 Sand Casting 60 2.8.2 Plaster and Shell Molding 62 2.8.3 Permanent Mold Casting 63 2.8.4 Die Casting 64 2.8.5 Investment Casting 64 2.8.6 Evaporative Pattern Casting 64 2.8.7 Casting Heat Treatment 65 2.8.8 Casting Properties 65 2.9 Machining 66 2.9.1 High Speed Machining 68 2.9.2 Chemical Milling 76 2.10 Joining 76 2.11 Welding 77 2.11.1 Gas Metal and Gas Tungsten Arc Welding 78 2.11.2 Plasma Arc Welding 80 2.11.3 Laser Welding 81 2.11.4 Resistance Welding 82 2.11.5 Friction Stir Welding 83 2.12 Chemical Finishing 88 Summary 89 Recommended Reading 90 References 90 Chapter 3 Magnesium and Beryllium 93 MAGNESIUM 95 3.1 Magnes ium Metallurgical Considerations 95 3.2 Magnesium Alloys 97 3.2.1 Wrought Magnesium Alloys 97 3.2.2 Magnesium Casting Alloys 99 3.3 Magnesium Fabrication 103 3.3.1 Magnesium Forming 103 3.3.2 Magnesium Sand Casting 104 3.3.3 Magnesium Heat Treating 106 3.3.4 Magnesium Machining 107 3.3.5 Magnesium Joining 107 3.4 Magnesium Corrosion Protection 108 BERYLLIUM 109 3.5 Beryllium Metallurgical Considerations 109 3.6 Beryllium Alloys 110 vi ElsevierUK Title:CATM/0catpre 25-6-2006 3:17p.m. PageNo:vii Contents 3.7 Beryllium Powder Metallurgy 111 3.8 Beryllium Fabrication 114 3.8.1 Beryllium Forming 114 3.8.2 Beryllium Machining 115 3.8.3 Beryllium Joining 116 3.9 Aluminum–Beryllium Alloys 116 Summary 116 References 118 Chapter 4 Titanium 119 4.1 Metallurgical Considerations 120 4.2 Titanium Alloys 126 4.2.1 Commercially Pure Titanium 126 4.2.2 Alpha and Near-Alpha Alloys 127 4.2.3 Alpha–Beta Alloys 128 4.2.4 Beta Alloys 131 4.3 Melting and Primary Fabrication 132 4.4 Forging 137 4.5 Directed Metal Deposition 140 4.6 Forming 143 4.7 Superplastic Forming 145 4.8 Heat Treating 150 4.8.1 Stress Relief 151 4.8.2 Annealing 152 4.8.3 Solution Treating and Aging 152 4.9 Investment Casting 154 4.10 Machining 158 4.11 Joining 165 4.12 Weldin g 165 4.13 Brazing 170 Summary 171 Recommended Reading 172 References 173 Chapter 5 High Strength Steels 175 5.1 Metallurgical Considerations 176 5.2 Medium Carbon Low Alloy Steels 182 5.3 Fabrication of Medium Carbon Low Alloy Steels 186 5.4 Heat Treatment of Medium Carbon Low Alloy Steels 191 5.5 High Fracture Toughness Steels 198 5.6 Maraging Steels 200 5.7 Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steels 202 vii ElsevierUK Title:CATM/0catpre 25-6-2006 3:17p.m. PageNo:viii Contents Summary 207 Recommended Reading 207 References 208 Chapter 6 Superalloys 211 6.1 Metallurgical Considerations 213 6.2 Commercial Superalloys 219 6.2.1 Nickel Based Superalloys 221 6.2.2 Iron–Nickel Based Superalloys 224 6.2.3 Cobalt Based Superalloys 225 6.3 Melting and Primary Fabrication 225 6.4 Powder Metallurgy 228 6.4.1 Powder Metallurgy Forged Alloys 228 6.4.2 Mechanical Alloying 230 6.5 Forging 232 6.6 Forming 236 6.7 Investment casting 238 6.7.1 Polycrystalline Casting 239 6.7.2 Directional Solidification (DS) Casting 240 6.7.3 Single Crystal (SC) Casting 242 6.8 Heat Treatment 243 6.8.1 Solution Strengthened Superalloys 243 6.8.2 Precipitation Strengthened Nickel Base Superalloys 244 6.8.3 Precipitation Strengthened Iron–Nickel Base Superalloys 246 6.8.4 Cast Superalloy Heat Treatment 247 6.9 Machining 248 6.9.1 Turning 251 6.9.2 Milling 252 6.9.3 Grinding 254 6.10 Joining 256 6.10.1 Welding 256 6.10.2 Brazing 260 6.10.3 Transient Liquid Phase (TLP) Bonding 263 6.11 Coating Technology 264 6.11.1 Diffusion Coatings 264 6.11.2 Overlay Coatings 265 6.11.3 Thermal Barrier Coatings 266 Summary 266 Recommended Reading 270 References 270 viii ElsevierUK Title:CATM/0catpre 25-6-2006 3:17p.m. PageNo:ix Contents Chapter 7 Polymer Matrix Composites 273 7.1 Materials 276 7.1.1 Fibers 277 7.1.2 Matrices 280 7.1.3 Product Forms 282 7.2 Fabrication Processes 286 7.3 Cure Tooling 286 7.3.1 Tooling Considerations 286 7.4 Ply Collation 291 7.4.1 Manual Lay-up 291 7.4.2 Flat Ply Collation and Vacuum Forming 294 7.5 Automated Tape Laying 295 7.6 Filament Winding 298 7.7 Fiber Placement 304 7.8 Vacuum Bagging 307 7.9 Curing 311 7.9.1 Curing of Epoxy Composites 313 7.9.2 Theory of Void Formation 314 7.9.3 Hydrostatic Resin Pressure 318 7.9.4 Resin and Prepreg Variables 322 7.9.5 Condensation Curing Systems 323 7.9.6 Residual Curing Stresses 324 7.10 Liquid Molding 327 7.11 Preform Technology 328 7.11.1 Fibers 329 7.11.2 Woven Fabrics 330 7.11.3 Multiaxial Warp Knits 331 7.11.4 Stitching 331 7.11.5 Braiding 333 7.11.6 Preform Handling 334 7.12 Resin Injection 336 7.12.1 RTM Curing 338 7.12.2 RTM Tooling 338 7.13 Vacuum Assisted Resin Transfer Molding 339 7.14 Pultrusion 341 7.15 Thermoplastic Composites 343 7.15.1 Thermoplastic Consolidation 345 7.15.2 Thermoforming 351 7.15.3 Thermoplastic Joining 355 7.16 Trimming and Machining Operations 361 Summary 364 Recommended Reading 366 References 366 ix