Managing Brand Equity Capitalizing on the Value of a Brand Name David A. Aaker · THE FREE PRESS NEW YORK LONDON TORONTO SYDNEY Managing Brand Equity THE FREE PRESS A Division of Simon & Schuster Inc. 1230 Avenue of the Americas New York, N.Y. 10020 www.SimonandSchuster.com Copyright © 1991 by David A. Aaker All rights reserved, including the right of reproduction in whole or in part in any form. THE FREE PRESS and colophon are trademarks of Simon & Schuster Inc. Manufactured in the United States of America 20 19 18 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Aaker, David A. Managing brand equity: capitalizing on the value of a brand name / David A. Aaker. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-02-900101-3 eISBN-13: 978-1-4391-8838-5 1. Brand name products—Valuation—United States—Management. 2. Intangible property—Valuation—United States—Management. I. Title. HD69.B7A22 1991 658.8′27-dc20 91-10380 CIP Contents Preface and Acknowledgments 1. What Is Brand Equity? The Ivory Story The Role of Brands Brand-Building Neglect The Role of Assets and Skills What Is Brand Equity? What Is the Value of a Brand? Brand Value Based upon Future Earnings Issues in Managing Brand Equity The Plan of the Book 2. Brand Loyalty The MicroPro Story Brand Loyalty Measuring Brand Loyalty The Strategic Value of Brand Loyalty Maintaining and Enhancing Loyalty Selling Old Customers Instead of New Ones 3. Brand Awareness The Datsun-Becomes-Nissan Story The GE-Becomes-Black & Decker Story What Is Brand Awareness? How Awareness Works to Help the Brand The Power of Old Brand Names How to Achieve Awareness 4. Perceived Quality The Schlitz Story What Is Perceived Quality? How Perceived Quality Generates Value What Influences Perceived Quality? 5. Brand Associations: The Positioning Decision The Weight Watchers Story Associations, Image, and Positioning How Brand Associations Create Value Types of Associations 6. The Measurement of Brand Associations The Ford Taurus Story What Does This Brand Mean to You? Scaling Brand Perceptions 7. Selecting, Creating, and Maintaining Associations The Dove Story The Honeywell Story Which Associations Creating Associations Maintaining Associations Managing Disasters 8. The Name, Symbol, and Slogan The Volkswagen Story Names Symbols Slogans 9. Brand Extensions: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly The Levi Tailored Classics Story The Good: What the Brand Name Brings to the Extension More Good: Extensions Can Enhance the Core Brand The Bad: The Name Fails to Help the Extension The Ugly: The Brand Name Is Damaged More Ugly: A New Brand Name Is Foregone How to Go About It Strategy Considerations 10. Revitalizing the Brand The Yamaha Story Increasing Usage Finding New Uses Entering New Markets Repositioning the Brand Augmenting the Product/Service Obsoleting Existing Products with New-Generation Technologies Alternatives to Revitalization: The End Game 11. Global Branding and a Recap The Kal Kan Story The Parker Pen Story A Global Brand? Targeting a Country Analyzing the Context A Recap Notes Index Preface and Acknowledgments THE POWER OF BRANDS Larry Light, a prominent advertising research professional, was asked by the editor of the Journal of Advertising Research for his perspective on marketing three decades into the future. Light’s analysis was instructive: The marketing battle will be a battle of brands, a competition for brand dominance. Businesses and investors will recognize brands as the company’s most valuable assets. This is a critical concept. It is a vision about how to develop, strengthen, defend, and manage a business…. It will be more important to own markets than to own factories. The only way to own markets is to own market-dominant brands. The power of brand names is not restricted to consumer markets. In fact, brand equity may be more important in industrial goods markets than in consumer marketing. Brand-name awareness often is pivotal in being considered by an industrial buyer. Further, after analysis, many industrial purchase alternatives tend to be toss-ups. The decisive factor then can turn upon what a brand means to a buyer. THE INTEREST IN BRANDING Brand equity is one of the hottest topics in management today. The Marketing Science Institute recently did a survey of its membership, which includes 50 or so of the top marketing companies in the country, to learn their opinion as to what were the pressing questions in need of research. The runaway winner was brand equity. Academic research interest has also mushroomed: A recent research proposal competition sponsored by the Marketing Science Institute received 28 proposals. The growing interest is reflected in the proliferating conferences, articles, and press attention on branding. Another indicator is the experimentation with different organizational forms in order to better enhance and protect brand equity. Some, like Colgate-Palmolive and Canada Dry, have created a management of brand equity position to be a guardian of the value of brands. There are several driving forces behind the interest in branding. First, firms have shown a willingness to pay substantial premiums for brand names because alternative development of new brand names either is not feasible or is too costly. This phenomenon raises several questions, such as: How much is brand equity worth? On what is it based? Why should so much be paid? Second, marketing professionals sense that an increased emphasis upon price, often involving the excessive use of price promotions, is resulting in the deterioration of industries into commodity-like business areas. They believe that more resources should be diverted into brand-building activities, to develop points of differentiation. The recognized need is to develop sustainable competitive advantages based upon non-price competition. The problem is that brand-building efforts, unlike price promotions, have little visible impact upon sales in the short run. How then are such activities justified in a world with extreme pressures for delivering short-term performance? Third, managers realize a need to fully exploit their assets in order to maximize the performance of their business. A key asset is usually the brand name. How can it be exploited? Can it be extended to new products, or exposed to new markets? Is there an opportunity to get more out of it by strengthening it or by altering its components? Conversely, how might it be damaged, and how can that be avoided? THE APPROACH OF THE BOOK This book has several objectives. One objective is to define and illustrate brand equity, providing a structure that will help managers see more clearly how brand equity does provide value. Another is to document research findings and illustrative examples which demonstrate that value has emerged (or has been lost) from marketing decisions or environmental events that have enhanced (or damaged) the brand. A third objective is to discuss how brand equity should be managed: How should it be created, maintained, and protected? How should it be exploited? A fourth objective is to raise questions and suggest issues that should be addressed by thoughtful managers who are trying to think strategically. I have written this book for managers having either direct or indirect responsibility for brands and their equity. Such managers will represent firms that are either large or small, consumer or industrial, service-or product-focused. They will be concerned with the need to develop and protect the equity in their core brands. In addition, they will (or should) be addressing such questions as the following: What is the role of the company name in the branding equation? Should we develop a subbrand name? Should the brand name be extended to other products? I hope also, however, that it will be used in schools of