Selbyana 21(1,2): 112-117. 2000. MANAGEMENT OPTIONS FOR SAL FORESTS (SHOREA ROBUSTA GAERTN.) IN THE NEPAL TERAl S.P. SAH Department of Biological Sciences, Kathmandu University, Dhulikhel, Nepal. ABSTRACT. This paper reviews problems and issues related to management options for the lowland (terai) forests of Nepal. Two types of sal forest (Shorea robusta) are found in the country: terai forests and hill forests. Sal is the dominant tree species of the terai forests, where it constitutes about 45% of total wood volume. In the hills, however, sal is only a minor species by volume. Significant loss of this species throughout southern Nepal is having a profound social and economic impact on the area. Natural regen eration of sal in Nepal has been observed but only under undisturbed conditions. Since local people are exploiting most sal forests, it is unlikely that the species will be able to withstand the current pressure being exerted by increasing populations. Consequently some means of production forest management needs to be employed. This paper discusses the current situation and offers suggestions for managing and con serving the terai forests. Key words: sal forest, Shorea robusta, forest management, natural regeneration, soil INTRODUCTION in the terai. Sal, the dominant species and with high commercial value, has been the emphasis Sal (Shorea robusta Gaertn.) is the most valu of sal forest management. Degradation of sal able tree species in the plain regions (terai) of forests in Nepal has reached the point where the Nepal. Sal is also found in the lower hills (up to species is considered endangered. The goal of 1200 m). Although a deciduous tree species, sal this paper is to review the current status of sal never completely sheds all of its leaves. The tree forests and the potential of forest management occurs in deciduous dry forest with low rainfall to preserve the species. (1000 mm/year), deciduous moist forest with moderate rainfall (1500-2000 mm/year), and ev SAL FORESTS IN THE 'fERAl ergreen moist forest (2000-6600 mm/year). The species most closely associated with sal are Ter Sal is the tree species with the best timber minalia tomentosa and T. bellerica. Sal is a . quality in Nepal; and in the past, the sal forests moderate light-demanding species and grows in of the terai were the source of the country's a range of soil types, except for very sandy, wealth. These forests, however, were exploited gravely, or waterlogged soils. and wood products exported to India. During the In Nepal, two types of sal forests are found: last two decades, remaining forestland has been terai sal forest and hill sal forest (Stainton 1972). placed under full protection as a result of the Even though sal is economically and ecologi loss of sal forests. With high demand for timber, cally the most valuable tree species of Nepal, rising wood prices have led to widespread illegal very little research has been conducted on the logging and timber smuggling. In the 1940s, be proper management practices for growing sal. cause of malaria in the terai, people began mi The species, however, has been studied for a grating to the hills. Following eradication of the century in adjacent India, where natural regen disease in the 1960s, hill people began migrating eration and sal establishment have been difficult to the terai for an easier life. The eradication of (Joshi & Troup 1980). Although no significant, malaria from the terai-boosted settlement (legal large-scale sal research has been undertaken in and illegal) has led to further encroachment on Nepal, several recent research projects in terai sal forests. sal forest have indicated that the species has po The Water and Energy Commission of Nepal tential for natural regeneration and establishment placed the annual deforestation rate for 1964/ (Gautam 1990, Mathema 1991, Rautiainen 65-1978/79 at 1.8% and predicted increased de 1994). forestation rates from then on. The current study, The natural forests of the terai have deterio however, has not found an increased deforesta rated severely as a result of continued human tion rate; instead total forest area in the terai in population growth and unsustainable agricultural 1978-1991 has decreased only 1.3% per year practices. Illicit tree cutting, uncontrolled and (Land Resources Mapping Project 1986). In FIG heavy cattle grazing, fodder collection, and for URE 1, the Rupandehi is shown as fourth in ha est fires have had an adverse effect on the forests lost, but it actually has the highest deforestation 112 SAH: MANAGING SAL FORESTS IN NEPAL 113 10000.----------------------------------, 16000 14000 I-~~-----~-~-----~-----~--~~- 12000 10000 :! 6000~_"I_-1>I----~1__I'iI----~--~----------- 6000 FIGURE 2. Forest areas in the terai region of Nepal, with shaded areas indicating national parks. ~2ooo L-________________________________- ---l more than 100 tree species from the forests in the Iit ! '&~2! j lg'lo iil Ig. i I0 ~~ I~I! II}. ,~jJ i~ !~ limj'j !'0 &'~0l :Egl1o ! hteorwaie vfoerr, vaareri ohuarsv pesutrepdo sfeosr. tiOmnbleyr , af ufeelww osopde,c aiensd, 0: Z ........ fodder. Timber species are Shorea robusta, Dal bergia sissoo, D. latifolia, Adina cordifolia, and FIGURE 1. Changes in forest area by district in the terai region of Nepal, 1978-1991. Terminalia tomentosa; species harvested for fuel wood are S. robusta, A. cordifolia, T. tomentosa, Syzigium cumini, and Lagerstroemia parviflora; rate (ha lost/total ha) at 37%, mainly caused by and fodder species include Spathobolus parviflo forestland conversion to arable land, both autho ra, Garuga pinnata, Gmelina arborea, and A. rized and illegal. The largest absolute loss of cordifolia. Because of high demand, Shorea spe forestland has taken place in the far west of Ne cies have been designated as endangered (Joshi pal, with a decrease in forest area of 12,400 ha et al. 1995). Other endangered species of terai in Kanchanpur and 16,000 ha in Kailali. forests are shown in TABLE 2. Natural forests in the terai cover about 784,000 ha, of which 30% (238,000 ha) are NATURAL SAL REGENERATION within protected areas and national parks (FIG FIGURE 4 shows that the terai supports good URE 2). In Nepal, timber production forests are natural regeneration (Rautiainen 1995, Seppanen located mainly on the plains. The Forest Re sources and Survey Centre (1991) estimated to tal stem volume of plains forests at 78 million 50% m3, of which sal constituted 45%, Terminalia to 45% mentosa 13%, Acacia catechu 3%, Adina cor difolia 6%, and Dalbergia sissoo 2% (FIGURE 3). 40% The annual growth rate of sal forest in Nepal is 15-20 m-3/ha-1/yc1 under undisturbed condi 35% tions, a growth rate threefold higher than in In 30% dian sal forests. The slower growth of the sal species in India may be the result of significant ~ 25% frost. In Nepal no significant frost has been re ~ corded. 20% TABLE 1 represents the comparative vegeta 15% tion analysis of sal in both hill and terai forests. This study indicates that in both areas, relative 10% density and relative basal area of sal is 25-87%. ..... Relative frequency varies 12-24%. The Impor 5% tance Value Index (IVI) reflects a similar trend. ~ ~ ~ ~ 1]1 1]1 Except for the Gorkha district, basal area cov 0% erage in terai forests is greater than in hill for ests. SOCIOECONOMICS OF TERM SAL Forests in Nepal have value from both cultural and economic points of view. About 60% of Species household energy, 40% of livestock nutrition, and substantial soil nutrients in the form of organic FIGURE 3. Proportional stem value in the terai by matter are derived from forests. Local people use species, excluding national parks and reserves. 114 SELBYANA Volume 21(1,2) 2000 TABLE 1. Ecological status of Shorea robusta (sal) in the terai and hill forests of Nepal. Hill forests Terai forests Parameters Thuli Ban' Lamidanda' Gorkha2 Hetauda' Manahari4 Ecological parameters Frequency (%) 66 100 100 100 Relative frequency (%) 12 23 24 14 Density (per ha) 420 832 685 456 4805 Relative density (%) 68 43 33 56 48 Basal area (m2/ha) 686 3768 9203 8300 Relative basal area (%) 87 25 70 Importance Value Index 168 91 107 Seedling regeneration Seedlings (per ha) 1872 1564 1016 6000-10,000 Note: 'Dhungana (1997), 2 Pant (1997), 3 Nepali (1998), 4 Rautiainen(1994), 5 Skaerner and Thapa (1993). & Acharya 1994). About 41 % of the study plots ests could create employment and produce res in both pure Sal (Shorea robusta) and mixed sal idues and small-sized wood for domestic use. forests have more than 10,000 seedlings/ha. Un Parts of cutover forests could be used for pas expectedly, sal seedlings also were found more tureland and agroforestry. Protection forests frequently in forests having no mother sal trees could be used for collecting non-timber forest (TH). An average 5-year-old sal seedling has a products (NTFP). Fragmented forests close to height of 50 cm. Recent trials have shown that villages could be allocated for management as in the Nepal terai, where biotic factors and fires community or leasehold forests. are eliminated, a good establishment of sal seed Terai forests potentially could have a major lings can be attained (Rautiainen 1995). Studies impact on the national economy of Nepal. Esti of hill sal forests in Nepal (Dhungana 1997, Pant mated revenues from systematic forest manage 1997) found a lower number of sal seedlings ment of 300,000 ha within the terai for 20 years (l872-3437/ha) than Rautiainen (1994) found in are as much as Rupees 45,000 Lakhs ($66 mil terai sal forest (6000-1O,000/ha, see TABLE 1). lion US) annually on a sustainable basis (Peso Lower regeneration in hill sal forests suggests nen 1994). that sal is a more suitable species for the terai. Production-oriented natural forest manage TABLE 3 indicates that hill soils generally are ment needs to be introduced in the terai, but the more nutrient-rich than in the terai, except for problem is how to start. Obstacles to a wide K. Soil texture varies from loamy to sandy-loam scale operation throughout the terai include scar at both sites. Studies from India and Nepal in city of detailed silvicultural data, non-existence dicate that sal grows in various soil types, but of an appropriate implementing organization, loamy soil appears to be the best for regenera and uncertainty about environmental impacts. tion. Hill soils are more acidic than terai soils. Wesche (1995) found that some sal forests in the Although lower pH and Ca content of hill soil terai have a distinct gap in young trees 10-25 have been associated with better sal regeneration cm dbh (diameter at breast height). Most forests (Dhungana 1997), recent studies in Nepal are old growth, and this study suggests that they (Suoheimo 1995) show no significant effect of be tested for feasible timber production. soil quality on the abundance of sal regenera Ongoing debates over whether to manage the tion. Similar results have been obtained from sal forests of Nepal for timber production raise studies in Indian sal forests (Joshi & Troup both positive and negative aspects. 1980, Sharma et al. 1966). POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE ASPECTS TIMBER PRODUCTION IN THE TERAI The biological and environmental aspects of Satellite imagery-based inventory data indi timber production in the terai include the signif cate that at least 480,000 ha of forestland can be icant commercial value of sal wood, its promi classified as production forests (Pesonen 1994). nent regeneration status, its satisfactory growth The study indicates that most sal forests can be rate, the adequate establishment of sal seedlings saved and continuous production secured, if where biotic factors are controlled, a natural re these forests are brought under systematic forest generation ability that makes it suitable for pro management. Systematic harvesting of sal for- duction forestry, and its tolerance to drought, SAH: MANAGING SAL FORESTS IN NEPAL 115 TABLE 2. Endangered plant species in the terai forests of Nepal. Family Scientific name English common name Local name Apocynaceae Alstonia scholaris Devil's tree Chhatium Aspidiaceae Dryopteris sp. Fern Neuro Combretaceae Terminalia belerica Bastard myrobalan Barro Terminalia chebula Yellow myrobalan Rarro Datiscaceae Tetrameles nudiflora Mainakat Fabaceae Acacia concinna Soap pod Sikakai Bauhinia vahlii Camel's foot climber Bhorla Dalbergia latifolia Indian rosewood Satisal Desmodium dalbergioides Sandan Panjan Pterocarpus marsupium Indian kino tree Bijaya sal Liliaceae A~paragus officinalis Asparagus Kurilo Curculigo orchioides Musli Meliaceae Cedrella toona Tooni Myrtaceae Syzgium cumini Black plum Jamun Orchidaceae Flickingeria .fimbriatum Orchid Jiwanti Poaceae Eulaliopsis binata Sabai grass Babiyo Rhamnaceae Rhamnus nepaulensis Buckthorn Chile kath Rubiaceae Aldina cordifolia Yellow teak Karma Verbenaceae Gmelina arborea Malay bush-beech Khamari Note: Endangered species are categorized on the basis of over-use, poor regeneration, socioeconomic factors, and low frequency, as designated in the Master Plan for the Forestry Sector, 1988. Source: Joshi et al. 1995. frost, and fire. An export market exists, because most tropical rain forests are not suitable for timber production, with a few exceptions, such as in Indonesia. From a socio-economic stand point, timber production forestry needs to be evaluated on a trial-plot basis for its potential to 60,---------------------------------------. A create employment opportunities, its ability to 70 IBShorea robusta (Sal) strengthen not only timber production but other 60 ElMixed Forest parts of the forest products industry, its potential 50 to enhance foreign exchange and meet local needs for fuelwood, fodder, and other forest 40 products through collection of residues left after 30 harvesting. Existing protected areas, such as for est reserves and national parks, already total 220,000 ha or 30% of the total terai forest; and 10 thus timber production need not disturb conser 0-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35--40 > 40 vation of biodiversity. No. seedlings (1000 seedlingslha) Timber production requires adequate funding, a proper organization, and technical know-how. Free market sales can create problems and so 60 B cio-cultural restrictions may occur. 70 IIiDShorea robusta (Sal) 60 ~Mixed Forest Implementation Criteria 50 40 The criteria for implementing timber produc 30 tion forestry in Nepal can be summarized as fol til 20 lows: 10 mBL Bt. I7L P.I • Assess biological characters such as regener- ation and establishment, 0-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40 > 40 No. seedlings (1000 seedlings/ha) ., Identify old-growth sal forests to be logged, • Test a small trial plot as a model, FIGURE 4. Seedling frequency in natural regenera tion of sal and mixed forest study sites. Source: Rau e Monitor and evaluate the model test phase tiainen 1995. (feasibility studies). 116 SELBYANA Volume 21(1,2) 2000 TABLE 3. Soil characteristics of Shorea (sal) terai forests and hill forests. Hill forests Terai forests Parameters Thuli Bani Lamidanda1 Gorkha2 Hetauda3 Manahari4 Soil texture Loam-sandy Sandy loam Loamy Sandy loam pH 4.1 4.3 5.1 7.3 6.3 Organic matter (%) 0.9 0.43 N (%) 0.06 0.08 0.09 0.04 P (kg/ha) 38.3 87.8 41.0 27.6 K (kg/ha) 232 262 221 320 Note: 1 Dhungana (1997), 2 Pant (1997), 3 Nepali (1998), 4 Rautiainen (1994), 5 Skaerner and Thapa (1993) . .. If the model proves suitable locally, ecologi- LITERATURE CITED cally, and economically; then .. Implement timber production forestry, Dhungana, M. 1997. Vegetation analysis and natural .. Reforest logged forests, and regeneration status of hill sal forests in Panchkhal, .. Test and fix the rotation period of logging. Kavreplanchowk, C. Nepal. M.Sc. Dissertation, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. Forest Resource and Survey Centre. 1991. Forest Re CONCLUSIONS sources of the Terai Districts 1990/91. Forest De partmentlHMG, Nepal. Publication No. 57. The present study finds that sal forests in the Gautam, K.H. 1990. Regeneration status of sal forests Nepal terai can be conserved, if natural regen in Nepal. Mimeograph. Ministry of Forest and eration of the species is protected from biotic Soil ConservationlHMG, Nepal. factors and other disturbances. Unlike India, Ne Joshi, S.P., O. Rautiainen and J. Suoheimo. 1995. Sil pal has abundant natural sal regeneration, and vicultural Guideline for the Implementation of fortunately less seedling dieback occurs. Since Operational Forest Management Plans in the Te natural regeneration is abundant, production rai, Nepal. FMUDPIFINNIDA, Kathmandu, Ne pal, Technical Report No. 15. based forest management can be adopted to im Joshi, H.B. and R.S. Troup. 1980. The Silviculture of prove the national economy on a sustainable ba Indian Trees, Dipterocarpaceae, Vol II. Controller sis. Hence plantation forests of exotic fast-grow of Publications, New Delhi, India. ing species are not needed, and sal forests can Land Resources Mapping Project. 1986. Agriculturel be harvested and secured for the future. The de Forestry Report. Land Resources Mapping Project bate continues, though because of the positive (LRMP), HMG/Nepal. and negative aspects of timber-production for Nepali, B.R. 1998. Assessing the impacts of cement estry. On the positive side are the abundant nat factory pollution on the vegetation and soil. M.Sc. ural regeneration and seedling establishment in Dissertation, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. sal forests; and on the negative side are the Pant, A.A. 1997. A comparative study of vegetation and natural regeneration of two hill sal forests: needed funding and technical know-how. community forest and degraded forest. M.Sc. Dis The current study suggests the following man sertation, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. agement options for managing sal forests in the Mathema, P. 1991. Sal regeneration management. Ne terai: pal J. For. 6 (2): 112-114. Pesonen, P. 1994. The Potential of Natural Forest of .. Test the concept of production forestry first the Terai and New Principles of Forest Manage and only then begin implementation. ment. FMUDP/FINNIDA, Kathmandu, Nepal, .. Begin by logging only old-growth sal forests. Working Paper No. 15. .. Develop appropriate silvicultural systems and Rautiainen, O. 1994. Preliminary Growth and Yield management practices for Nepal rather than Table of Sal (Shorea robusta) in Nepal. Mimeo copying systems from other countries. graph. Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation! .. Adopt appropriate land-use policies, such as HMG, Nepal. a settlement scheme targeted to areas unsuit ---. 1995. Regeneration Status of Sal (Shorea ro able for agriculture and forestry. busta) in Bara District, Nepal. Mimeograph. Min • Promote the use of non-timber forest products istry of Forest and Soil ConservationlHMG, Ne pal. (NTFP) from protected areas to enhance the Seppanen, H. and K. Acharya. 1994. Operational For economics of local communities. est Management for the Bara District Forest Area • Control biotic and other disturbance factors to 1995/96-1999/2000. FMUDP/FINNIDA, Kath promote natural regeneration and seedling es mandu, Nepal, Working Paper No.5. tablishment. Sharma, D., S.S. Neggi and G.S. Sindhu. 1996. Chem- SAH: MANAGING SAL FORESTS IN NEPAL 117 ical composItion of some fodder tree leaves in Mixed Sal Forests in Nepal. FMUDPIFINNIDA, Kangra district. J. Res. P.A.U. 3(4): 438-442. Kathmandu, Nepal, Working Paper No. 10(2): 22- Skaerner, G. and P.B. Thapa. 1993. Harvesting and 32. Transportation in Manahari Demonstration Plots. Stainton, J.D.A. 1972. Forests of Nepal. Hafer Pub FMUDPIFINNIDA, Kathmandu, Nepal, Working lishing Company, New York, USA. Paper No.7. Wesche, K. 1995. Structure and Use of a Sal Forest in Suoheimo, J. 1995. Natural Regeneration Potential of Southern Nepal. TOEB/GTZ, Germany.